Saturday, November 2, 2024

Jacob and Joseph, Step Pyramid, Famine

by Damien F. Mackey The manifestation of Joseph in Egypt upon whom I want to concentrate here, initially, is as Den (or Udimu), considered to have been one of the First Dynasty pharaohs. A. Joseph of Egypt as Den (Usaphais) According to a legend as recorded by Artapanus (History of the Jews), c. 100 BC, Moses was “a king” of Egypt. This information, most crucial if it were true, but leading one on a wild goose chase if it were not, saw me spending years trying to identify Moses as one or other Pharaoh. And it is still leading scholars a merry dance, with Amenemhet IV being a favourite for King Moses, though some regard Moses as the monotheistic Akhnaton (Akhenaten). Moses was, as it turns out, Vizer and Chief Judge in Egypt: mighty, but not Pharaonic. His office is perfectly defined by the more belligerent of the two squabbling Hebrews, who rounded on him with (Exodus 2:14): ‘Who made you ruler [Vizier] and [Chief] judge over us? Are you thinking of killing me as you killed the Egyptian?’ In the case of Moses’ predecessor, Joseph of Egypt, no one (I think) claims that he was an actual Pharaoh. The ruler of Egypt at the time makes quite clear how Joseph stands in relation to the throne (Genesis 41:39-40): “Then Pharaoh said to Joseph, ‘Since God has made all this known to you, there is no one so discerning and wise as you. You shall be in charge of my palace, and all my people are to submit to your orders. Only with respect to the throne will I be greater than you’.” Revisionist historians, who have endured no end of head-scratching towards arriving at a plausible identification for the historical Moses, more quickly came up with such a candidate for Joseph. He was the Vizier IMHOTEP of Egypt’s Third Dynasty, the highly talented and trusted sage and architect serving King Horus Netjerikhet, wrongly also called Djoser (or Zoser – read further on). There is that famous Famine Stela, erected many centuries later than the time of Horus Netjerikhet and Imhotep, telling of how Imhotep had saved Egypt from a seven-year famine. So, it seems that the partnership between this pair is clearly defined, Horus Netjerikhet was the King, and Imhotep was his Vizier. All well and good so far: Imhotep (= Joseph) – seven-year famine (= biblical Famine). That ideal situation was suddenly shattered for me this year when Brenton Minge, who had previously written a most important booklet entitled Jesus Spoke Hebrew. Busting the “Aramaic” Myth, sent me a copy of his unpublished work on Egyptology, Pharaoh’s Evidence. Egypt’s Stunning Witness to Joseph and Exodus, in which he erased Imhotep from history, cleverly arguing that Imhotep was a title and not a name, and that the actual name of the official, presumably referring to the biblical Joseph, had been deleted from the base of Horus Netjerikhet’s Saqqara statue. As the year wore on, I was able (so I believe) to locate Imhotep as a real person in ancient Egypt. More on that afterwards. In the process, I managed to come up with a whole lot of identifications, alter egos, for Joseph in Egypt. He who had formerly been scarce - and even scarcer if Imhotep were to be removed from any consideration - was all of a sudden popping up everywhere. The manifestation of Joseph in Egypt upon whom I want to concentrate here, initially (A.), is as Den (or Udimu) (c. 3000 BC, conventional dating), considered to have been one of the First Dynasty pharaohs. The name, Den, may be a posthumous attribution. In an earlier article, I had come to light with the following rather neat arrangement: When Egypt’s dynasties are not set in single file, there may occur this nice symmetry: Abraham (dynasties 1 and 10) Joseph (dynasties 3 and 11) Moses (dynasties 4 and 12) …. This sort of parallel structuring will not be found, of course, in the text books. Evolutionary-minded modern scholars have a habit of wanting everything set linear. If Den (pictured above in typical pharaonic smiting pose) were the biblical Joseph, however, then the First Dynasty would now need to be split between Abraham and Joseph (dynasties 1, 3 and 11). The status of Joseph turns out to be quite unlike that of Moses, over whom the Pharaoh would have had the power of life and death. Joseph was, as I have come to determine, a quasi-Pharaoh, who, in some cases, did not even bother to recognise the actual Pharaoh. How could this have been? I suspect that Joseph, aged 30 when he stood before Pharaoh (c. 1700 BC) armed with his inspired interpretations of the Dreams, was somewhat older than the Pharaoh, who must have been in awe of this brilliant Hebrew. “Joseph was thirty years old when he entered the service of Pharaoh king of Egypt. And Joseph went out from Pharaoh’s presence and travelled throughout Egypt” (Genesis 41:46). No wonder that Pharaoh regarded Joseph as his “Father”. For, as Joseph tells his penitent brothers (Genesis 45:8): ‘So then, it was not you who sent me here, but God. He made me Father to Pharaoh, lord of his entire household and ruler of all Egypt’. Joseph’s own father, Jacob, would twice bless the (presumably young) Pharaoh (Genesis 47:7, 10), as a superior to an inferior (as has been said), but perhaps also as a grandfather might bless his grandchild. Not untypically for a young person, the Pharaoh, after Jacob had blessed him, “asked him, ‘How old are you?’” (vv. 7-8). Den’s alternative names There are various compelling reasons why I am now convinced that Joseph in Egypt was Den, not least of these being his other name, as given by Manetho, Usaph-ais. This, Usaph, is purely the Semitic name for Joseph (Yosef, Yusef) with a Greek ending. But that is not all. Den also had the hypocoristic nick-name, Khasti, “foreigner”, which is exactly how the Egyptians would have viewed the Hebrew Joseph, whose brothers would require an interpreter (Genesis 42:23). If all that were not enough, the name Den is interpreted as meaning “bringer of water”, or “pourer of water”, which is precisely what Joseph did for a parched Egypt. Summing up the names of Den, then, we arrive at this happy combination: Usaph (Joseph); the foreigner; he who brings water. Close to Den in the First Dynasty list is Djet, again a famine Pharaoh: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Djet “Manetho mentions that in [Djet’s] reign a great famine seized Egypt”. Owing to the abundant harvests of the River Nile, famines (especially “great” ones) were extremely rare in Egypt. Even before we come to consider a prime candidate for Joseph, Imhotep, in Egypt’s Third Dynasty, we have found ourselves already feasting like a well-fed land of Egypt upon the abundant wheat of evidence for the First Dynasty’s Den as Joseph. And there is plenty more harvest to come, before we move on to Imhotep himself. Den and the Heb-Sed Festival Konstantin Borisov (2024) has written of the uniqueness of this somewhat poorly understood Egyptian festival (Archaeological Discovery, 12, 46-65): https://www.scirp.org/journal/ad The Egyptian Pyramids—Connection to Rain and Nile Flood Anomalies …. The Heb-Sed festival stands out as one of the most prominent and potentially the most ancient festival in ancient Egypt. This festival served as a demonstration of the king’s vitality and potency, although certain aspects of its origin and specific details remain unclear. There is a belief that the festival tested the king’s vital power and if unsuccessful, the king would be sacrificed and replaced by a more potent successor. The Heb-Sed ceremonies have been the subject of extensive excavations conducted over the years, revealing valuable insights into this ancient Egyptian tradition (Uphill, 1965). It is widely acknowledged that these festivities occurred thirty years after the king’s accession to the throne, although certain rulers deviated from this pattern and held them more frequently. …. This can be accomplished drawing on the research work of Barbara Bell published in the American Journal of Archeology. Bell argued that a key responsibility of a reigning king in ancient Egypt included rainmaking (Bell, 1970, 1971, 1975). According to this perspective, the king had a crucial role in ensuring the prosperity of the cultivated Egyptian lands by controlling rainfall through his purported magical abilities. It was believed that the king possessed the power to make the banks of the Nile valley and even the desert wadis green (Allen, 1988: p. 41). Extending this line of thinking, when the king died, he was believed to continue his caring role, though in a different capacity as a great god in the afterlife, where he would still oversee rain, crops, and Nile levels (Frankfort, 1978: p. 59). Meanwhile, his successor Horus, inheriting the role of his predecessor, fulfills his caregiving obligations upholding the principles of Maat, the fundamental principle of the world order (Teeter, 1997), where the integral part of Maat is offering rituals to the gods, which was believed to be essential in retaining the divine oversight and protection (Assmann, 2001: p. 5). It was believed that upholding Maat, a pharaoh could restore the Egyptian land to its primordial time (Teeter, 1997: p. 9), evoking the imagery of a land flourishing with abundant rainfall. Therefore, it seems conceivable that there exists a connection between “resting Ka”, rainfall, and Maat. The connection between the deceased king and rainfall receives additional support from the writings of Plutarch, a renowned philosopher from the first century. It is widely recognized that the deceased king is associated with the deity Osiris, who is not only the god of the dead, but also holds significance as an agricultural god. According to Plutarch, Osiris is linked to all germinating moisture (Plutarch, c.100, 1936: p. 81), which can be seen as a reference to rain. Furthermore, Osiris is associated with Nile floods and vegetation (Breasted, 1912: p. 23). The ancient Egyptians believed that only by performing the prescribed offering ceremonies correctly and at the right season could the Nile rise to the appropriate level to water the lands (Budge, 1910: p. 172). They also believed that cutting back on offering would result in famine throughout the land (Assmann, 2001: p. 64). Consequently, based on this association, one could interpret that there is indeed a link between the deceased king, offerings, and rainfall. …. Important for this article, and cutting through certain Egyptian superstitious beliefs and rituals, is the connection between the Heb-Sed festival and rain to prevent famine. And it may all have begun with our Den, as Konstantin Borisov will go on to tell: …. Evidence 1—Famine Stela The Famine Stela from the island of Sehel, recounts a seven-year drought during the reign of the third dynasty pharaoh Djoser [sic] (Budge, 1994: p. 60). Although the stela itself is a reproduction of an older text, the story line is what carries significance. According to the stela, the gods were angered by the Egyptians’ lack of worship towards the Nile gods, leading them to unleash a prolonged period of aridity and insufficient Nile floods. To investigate this matter, Djoser sends Imhotep, who consults older records and discovers that floods are controlled by the god Khnum-Khufu, residing in Elephantine. As a response, Djoser reinstates offerings to the Nile gods, resulting in the drought ending, the Nile returning to its appropriate level, and bountiful agriculture and crops. Two noteworthy points emerge from this evidence. Firstly, the story establishes a clear link between rainfall and offerings to the gods. It is hypothesized that Djoser likely made Maat offerings, which then allowed nature to respond accordingly. Secondly, the knowledge of the rainmaking practice seems to have been forgotten at Djoser’s time. As Imhotep, himself, needed to align with older records to recover the knowledge. The question is then, when was this originally devised? It is quite enticing to attribute this innovation to the era of the 1st Dynasty ruler, Den. This inclination arises due to several compelling factors. Firstly, the Palermo stone, which records the lineage of kings, also includes measurements from a Nilometer (Bell, 1970: p. 571). These measurements reveal a significant anomaly during Den’s reign, depicting higher Nile levels compared to the periods before and after his rule. Moreover, Den’s Horus name, which is one of the earliest among the five names with a serekh façade, is bestowed upon the king posthumously (Petrie, 1888: p. 22). Notably, Gardiner suggests that Den’s Horus name, “Udimu”, can be translated as “water pourer” (Gardiner, 1961: p. 401). It is plausible to pressume [sic] that Den’s recognized role in procuring rainfall and higher Nile levels left a lasting impression on his followers, leading them to confer upon him the appellation of “water pourer”. This could indicate the recognition of his association with precipitation and his perceived ability to influence favorable weather conditions. …. Den, who “left a lasting impression”, went down to posterity as the Bringer of Water, the Water Pourer, who had been able to procure “rainfall and higher Nile levels” (consider the seven years of plenty, Genesis 41:47-49). In actual fact, Den, as Joseph, had achieved this owing to a divinely inspired prescience of weather patterns and outcomes, rather than through ancient Egyptian rituals and superstitious incantations. There are some aspects, at least, of the Heb-Sed festival that I think may recall incidents in the lives of Jacob and Joseph. It was initially centred around the Step Pyramid at Saqqara, which I hold to have been a ‘material icon’ of Jacob’s dream of a Stairway to Heaven” (Genesis 28:12): https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/egyptians/pyramid_gallery_03.shtml “Djoser's pyramid has a stepped appearance. It is an extension of the mound found in mastaba tombs and is usually interpreted as a symbolic mound of creation, but can also be read as a stairway to heaven”. (Joyce Tyldesely) https://www.theguardian.com/world/2001/may/14/humanities.highereducation “The pyramids of Egypt could be explained as symbolic stairways to the stars …”. “So Jacob was left alone, and a man wrestled with him till daybreak”. Genesis 32:4 Wrestling with a young man was also a feature of the ancient Egyptian Heb-Sed festival. https://books.google.com.au/books?id=wLUjtPDyu- “The heb-sed court at Saqqara is a long rectangular open court where the king performed the heb-sed ritual, part of which was to wrestle with a young man in order to prove he was strong enough to continue ruling Egypt”. It may be less plausible, perhaps, to associate the 30-year span associated with the Heb-Sed festival with Joseph’s being 30 years old when he stood before Pharaoh. What is more certain - though not Heb-Sed related - is that Joseph’s age at death, 110 (Genesis 50:26), became the ideal age for at least the later sage Amenhotep son of Hapu to aspire to. And the famous sage, Ptahhotep, a semi-mythical character, it seems - whom many equate with Joseph - is supposed to have lived to the age of 110. The special Heb-Sed cloak may perhaps allude to the coat that Jacob gave to his son (Genesis 37:3): “Now Israel loved Joseph more than any of his other sons, because he had been born to him in his old age; and he made an ornate robe for him”. As Joseph was relieved of his coat by his vengeful brothers (Genesis 37:23), so was the cloak removed and replaced by a kilt during the athletic phase of the Heb-Sed festival. B. Joseph of Egypt as Imhotep The biblical Joseph has been identified by various revisionists as either Imhotep, or Ptahhotep, or both. The great Imhotep, who saved Egypt from a seven-year Famine, and who was the architect of the glorious Step Pyramid at Saqqara. In later eras, Imhotep became revered as a saint and thaumaturgist, a wonder-worker, and he even became known as the Father of Medicine, Imouthes (Greek Aesculapius). The Greco-Romans also turned Imhotep-Ptahhotep into The Father of Philosophy. Thales the First Philosopher Thales of Miletus, definitely a character of fiction, was likely based on Joseph as filtered through the sage Ptahhotep. Tha (Egyptian Ptah), with Greek ending -les. The absent-minded Thales, like Joseph (but for a different reason) ended up in a well, and measured a pyramid (like Imhotep as the architect of the Step Pyramid). Ironically, modern scholars rejoice, favourably contrasting Thales with Joseph - the triumph of Greek rationalism, so they think, over biblical prophecy and miracles. Previously I wrote about this intriguing situation: …. The implications for all of this must be a complete and fundamental shifting away from “Athens”, to “Jerusalem”, which philosophical ‘plate tectonics glide’ will necessitate also an enthusiastic embracing of the profound metaphysical Wisdom of which the pages of the Old Testament are replete. Apart from the fact that the Greeks were pagans, who often persecuted the Jews, there are critical reasons why I think that the early history of philosophy as it is taught, as I, indeed, was taught it, stands in need of a radical re-assessment of its origins. Moderns, who may yearn for a triumph of Greek rationalism over Hebrew religious, prophetic and sapiential thinking, and who may therefore rejoice in the advent of a scientific and rationalistic natural philosopher, a “Thales”, supposedly overshadowing, say, a mystical (biblical) Jacob, whose Ladder reaches into the heavens - “an Hellenic Götterdämmerung”, as Mark Glouberman (Kwantlen Polytechnic University, BC, Canada) has triumphantly called it - ought to be disappointed. But why? THERE WAS NO HISTORICAL THALES! Who there was, was an inspired Hebrew sage, JOSEPH, known in Egypt as Imhotep (and probably Ptah-hotep), who has been appropriated by the Greco-Romans and re-presented as an Ionian Greek natural philosopher with an odd Egyptian-Greek name (Ptah-les). A Turkish author and lecturer recently sent me the following typical view of the beginnings of wisdom, philosophy and rational thinking: In accordance with the generally accepted principle of the birth and starting point of the history of philosophy, starts with the "philosophers of nature" which is an Anatolian sourced phenomenon. Those Natural Philosophers in the south west or south of the Anatolian coast are accepted not only as the founders of western philosophy, but also they are the first brains explaining the truth with the help of natural phenomenon, instead of super natural powers. From my personal perspective, I always think that east and Far East of the world have also very powerful philosophical streams. …. Mark Glouberman (specialising in the history of early modern philosophy) has written euphorically (“Jacob’s Ladder … Personality and Autonomy in the Hebrew Scriptures”, Mentalities/Mentalités, 1998): Thales, one of the Seven Sages Of antiquity, is garlanded with the honorific "First Philosopher." From Miletus, Thales' home city on the coast of Asia Minor, the new way of thinking swept the region like wildfire, taking hold in the nearby towns and adjacent islands, racing northwards along the Aegean littoral as far as Thracian Abdera and Lampsacus in the Troad and westwards across the waters of the Ionian Sea to a peppering of settlements on Sicily and in Italy. After a provincial run philosophy finally gained the Greek mainland, there to attain its greatest heights for ancient times. It was destined, as we now know, indelibly to mark our culture and civilisation. While conferring founder’s rights on Thales, this thumbnail sketch singles out no episode of Thalean lore to symbolise the revolution that it credits him with having sparked. An historian, eye on Western rationality's trademark mastery over the natural world, might select as emblematic Thales' securing control of the local olive presses in the spring of a particularly bountiful year, and putting the squeeze on producers when the harvest was trundled in. …. Since Thales forecast the bumper crop by observing climatic regularities, not by interpreting dreams of lean kine and fat, nor by deciphering the writing on the wall, let alone by petitioning the skygod Zeus with libations of gore, the financial coup is symbolically apt. It plays up philosophy's new idea—a radical departure—of nature as an autonomous system, understandable, in the measure that it is understandable at all, by patient application of our natural faculties to its everyday workings. …. Red in tooth and claw though nature may be, harsh and unforgiving, it is (so Thales taught) clear of powers acting from abroad who, judging from our plight, might be thought to interfere with us for sport. The causal association of Thales' making a killing with a Hellenic Götterdämmerung, the demise of an earlier mode of thought, is a bonus for the economic choice. Nonetheless, the genial cynicism the choice displays might be felt to render the episode somewhat too tendentious for symbolic office. Who could deny that the revolutionary approach vouchsafed humankind a powerful instrument of positive change? If the chooser is looking ahead to our time, when Western rationality seems to be reaping the whirlwind, a sufficient response would seem to be, first, that the major benefits of the approach (plumbing, electricity, the motor-car, computers, etc.) did not begin to be enjoyed until a score of centuries after Thales, and, second, that the apocalypse, even granting it to be more than an incidental by-product of what delivers those benefits, was far beyond non-oracular anticipation in his day. Casting around for a cynic-proof alternative, our historian could do no better than elect Thales' prediction of the solar eclipse of 28 May 585 BC. …. Regarding this presumed eclipse, I wrote on a previous occasion (Joseph as Thales): …. To Thales is attributed a prediction in astronomy that was quite impossible for an Ionian Greek - or anyone else - to have estimated so precisely in the C6th BC. He is said to have predicted a solar eclipse that occurred on 28 May 585 BC during a battle between Cyaxares the Mede and Alyattes of Lydia …. This supposed incident has an especial appeal to the modern rationalist mind because it - thought to have been achieved by a Greek, and ‘marking the birthday of western science’ - was therefore a triumph of the rational over the religious. According to M. Glouberman, for instance, it was "… a Hellenic Götterdämerung, the demise of an earlier mode of thought" …. Oh really? Well, it never actually happened. [Otto] Neugebauer … astronomer and orientalist, has completely knocked on the head any idea that Thales could possibly have foretold such an eclipse. How ironic, considering that ‘Thales’ was just a pale imitation of Joseph, son of Jacob, that Mark Glouberman will exalt in the replacement of a mystical Jacob’s Ladder by a superior Hellenic mode of thinking! It seems to me that, if Thales could be shown not to have existed, modern thinking man would have to invent him. [End of quote] On that last point, though, is Brenton Minge correct in asserting that there was no Imhotep, and that he, too, was a man-made invention? C. Joseph of Egypt as Khasekhemwy-Imhotep Well, I think that I have most definitely discovered Imhotep now, in Khasekhemwy-Imhotep of Egypt’s Third Dynasty. Basically, Joseph was - as many are now thinking (see Internet and You Tube) - Imhotep of Egypt’s Third Dynasty, who brilliantly served Horus Netjerikhet. But Imhotep, simply qua Imhotep, does not appear to be very well attested from contemporaneous records, so much so that some say he may never have existed at all, but may have been a later (say, Ramesside, or Ptolemaïc) fabrication. That problem can be nicely solved, I think, by recognising Imhotep as the Second Dynasty, or the Third Dynasty character, Khasekhemwy-Imhotep (variously Hetep-Khasekhemwy, Khasekhem, or Sekhemkhet). The name Djoser (Zoser), wrongly attributed to Horus Netjerikhet, is actually, as Djoser-ti, another name of Sekhmekhet (or Khasekhemwy-Imhotep), hence of Joseph. Of this Khasekhemwy, we read (Britannica) that "... he was the first to use extensive stone masonry". But, then, something similar is said again of Horus Den (Dewen, Udimu) of the First Dynasty. Thus, Nicolas Grimal (A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell, p. 53. My emphasis): “In the tomb built by Den at Abydos a granite pavement was found, the first known example of stone-built architecture, which until then had been exclusively of mud brick”. And it is said, again, of Horus Netjerikhet (ibid., p. 64): “... Netjerykhet ... is famed for having invented stone-built architecture with the help of his architect Imhotep ...”. Very confusing! “... Den ... first known example of stone-built architecture ...”. Khasekhemwy “... first to use extensive stone masonry”. “... stone-built architecture [invented] with the help of ... Imhotep ...”. Never mind, if - as I am proposing here - Den, was Khasekhemwy, was Imhotep, serving Horus Netjerikhet. Some are of the opinion that Khasekhemwy-Imhotep may have been the father of Horus Netjerikhet: https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/djoser/ “It is possible that his father was Khasekhemwy”. This would be true now only in the Genesis 45:8 sense that Joseph (Khasekhemwy-Imhotep) was the “Father” of Pharaoh. On an earlier occasion I pointed out that a major mistake made when tying a wrong archaeological era to a given biblical scenario (which can easily be done) can have disastrous later effects: “Once such a tsunami of a mistake has been made, then it sends unwanted ripples all the way down the line. Thus, apart from the Era of Abraham now no longer being identifiable, the major Exodus and Conquest scenarios, too - which actually belong to MBI - can no longer be identified. And so on it goes”. The failure to identify Imhotep as the biblical Joseph in favour of, say, Mentuhotep of the Twelfth Dynasty, can have, so it seems to me, similar disastrous consequences. I have several times referred to the great pioneer revisionist, Dr. Donovan Courville, in this regard, as follows: If any revisionist historian had placed himself in a good position, chronologically, to identify in the Egyptian records the patriarch Joseph, then it was Dr. Donovan Courville, who had, in The Exodus Problem and its Ramifications, I and II (1971), proposed that Egypt’s Old and Middle Kingdoms were contemporaneous. That radical move on his part might have enabled Courville to bring the likeliest candidate for Joseph, the Vizier Imhotep of the Third Dynasty, into close proximity with the Twelfth Dynasty – the dynasty that revisionists most favour for the era of Moses. Courville, however, who did not consider Imhotep for Joseph, selected instead for his identification of this great biblical Patriarch another significant official, MENTUHOTEP, vizier to pharaoh Sesostris I, the second king of Egypt’s Twelfth Dynasty. And very good revisionists have followed Courville in his choice of Mentuhotep for Joseph. With my own system, though, favouring (i) Imhotep for Joseph; (ii) Amenemes [Amenemhet] I for the “new king” of Exodus 1:8; and (iii) Amenemes I’s successor, Sesostris I, for the pharaoh from whom Moses fled (as recalled in the semi-legendary “The Story of Sinuhe”), then Mentuhotep of this era must now loom large as a candidate for the Egyptianised Moses. …. [End of quote] Happily, I found that Brenton Minge (op. cit.) had situated the biblical Joseph and the Famine to Egypt’s Third Dynasty era - despite his rejection of Imhotep himself - and had situated Moses in Egypt’s Twelfth Dynasty era. His great achievement has been to identify the massive Third Dynasty preparations for the extended Famine, in terms of large dams, canals and waterways, and huge grain storage facilities - the land being replete at the time with bread and wheat symbolism. All this done, in advance, because a Pharaoh of Egypt, so overawed by Joseph’s divinely-inspired Wisdom, had believed that an extended Famine was on the way. Has there ever been anything like this!

Friday, November 1, 2024

Imhotep Enigma, his pharaoh was not Djoser, and proof for Egypt’s Third Dynasty Famine

Part One: ‘Imhotep’, was it a name or a title? by Damien F. Mackey “And two millennia later, other rulers, different people, raised [Imhotep] to the rank of a deity: in the era of the Ptolemies, the Greeks … revered him as the god of medicine on a par with their “native” Asclepius.” Alexandra Malenko Some of this article, originally written last June (2024), needs a bit of amending. Even a year ago I would not seriously have queried the historical reality of Imhotep. As far as I was concerned, the genius Imhotep of Egypt’s so-called Third Dynasty was the clear candidate for the biblical Joseph, son of Jacob, who had saved Egypt from a seven-year Famine. Did not Imhotep do the very same on behalf of his ruler (Pharaoh, as we say), Horus Netjerikhet, generally considered to have been the same as Djoser (or Zoser)? Thus we read, in part, in Netjerikhet’s (Neterkhet’s) celebrated Sehel Famine Stela: Year 18 of Horus: Neterkhet; the King of Upper and Lower Egypt: Neterkhet; Two Ladies: Neterkhet; Gold-Horus: Djoser; under the Count, Prince, Governor of the domains of the South, Chief of the Nubians in Yebu, Mesir. There was brought to him this royal decree. To let you know: I was in mourning on my throne, Those of the palace were in grief, My heart was in great affliction, Because Hapy had failed to come in time In a period of seven years. Grain was scant, Kernels were dried up, Scarce was every kind of food. Every man robbed his twin, Those who entered did not go. Children cried, Youngsters fell, The hearts of the old were grieving; Legs drawn up, they hugged the ground, Their arms clasped about them. Courtiers were needy, Temples were shut, Shrines covered with dust, Everyone was in distress. I directed my heart to turn to the past, I consulted one of the staff of the Ibis, The chief lector-priest of Imhotep, Son of Ptah South-of-his-Wall: "In which place is Hapy born? Which is the town of the Sinuous one? Which god dwells there? That he might join with me." He stood: "I shall go to Mansion-of-the-Net, It is designed to support a man in his deeds; I shall enter the House of Life, Unroll the Souls of Re, I shall be guided by them." He departed, he returned to me quickly, He let me know the flow of Hapy, His shores and all the things they contain. He disclosed to me the hidden wonders, To which the ancestors had made their way, And no king had equaled them since. He said to me: "There is a town in the midst of the deep, Surrounded by Hapy, Yebu by name; It is first of the first, First nome to Wawat, Earthly elevation, celestial hill, Seat of Re when he prepares To give life to every face. Its temple's name is 'Joy-of-life,' 'Twin Caverns' is the water's name, They are the breasts that nourish all. …. The important point to be noted is that this is a late inscription, thought to date to Egypt’s Ptolemaïc period, much, much later than the era to which it alludes. The following article by Alexandra Malenko, whilst presenting a typical, and most favourable view of Imhotep, includes sufficient precautionary comments to rein in any excess enthusiasm, e.g. “the myth created by the directors”, “great unknown”, “the world had forgot about him”, “what is fiction or exaggeration”, etc.: https://huxley.media/en/imhotep-leonardo-da-vinci-from-the-banks-of-the-nile/ Author: Alexandra Malenko IMHOTEP: Leonardo da Vinci from the banks of the Nile Even when there were no pyramids in Egypt, the legend said that he was great and powerful, he was the first who erected such a miracle in the sands. During the time of Cleopatra, he was revered as a wise and a skillful healer, during the reign of the Ptolemies, in the so-called Hellenistic period in the history of Egypt, he was worshiped as a deity. But here’s the trick: the name of Imhotep is well known to us, but not from scientific works, rather from entertainment films. Great power of cinema! This art is capable of distorting and altering everything, shown on the screen is so easy to believe, and the myth created by the directors is so difficult to collapse… Through the efforts of Hollywood masters, Imhotep is known to the broad masses for the film The Mummy, its numerous remarks and remakes. And whether it is Imhotep performed by Boris Karloff or Arnold Vosloo, the film image is incredibly far from the truth. THE GREAT UNKNOWN Imhotep (his name in translation means “the one who walks in peace”) lived in the 27th century BC [sic]. He was a healer and an architect, an inventor, a genius of his time and a polymath, as the ancient Greeks called such unique ones, Leonardo da Vinci of the Ancient World. During his long life, Imhotep served three pharaohs. His extraordinary talents were revealed during the first ruler of the Third Dynasty, Djoser. And two millennia later, other rulers, different people, raised him to the rank of a deity: in the era of the Ptolemies, the Greeks – the inhabitants of Egypt – revered him as the god of medicine on a par with their “native” Asclepius. According to some testimonies, the cult of Imhotep lasted until the appearance of Christianity and Islam in Egypt. With the arrival of the dominant religions, his temples were destroyed, most of the works were lost. Until the nineteenth century, until researchers began to decipher hieroglyphic texts, the world had forgot about him. But the very first mentions of an outstanding scientist of the Ancient World stunned Egyptologists. In 1926, during the excavation of the Djoser pyramid, archaeologists discovered a statue dated to the years when Imhotep hypothetically lived. On the basis of the statue, after the name of the pharaoh, the name of Imhotep was written and a list of titles was given: the keeper of the treasury of the king in Lower Egypt, the ruler of a large palace, the first after the king in Lower Egypt, the priest of Heliopolis, the architect, the carver of precious vases… For one person, the title of chati would be enough – this position in modern gradation can be equated with the post of prime minister. Chati was in charge of political and economic issues, was involved in the formation of the budget, made current executive decisions… But Imhotep was also a priest, therefore he had many responsibilities outside the palace. As a priest of the god Ra, the god of sun, he traveled extensively in Upper and Lower Egypt, taught the people the wisdom set forth in the sacred texts. WHO IS YOUR LORD? Pharaoh Djoser has been ruling Egypt for over twenty years. In the first years of his reign, he conquered the Sinai Peninsula and from that campaign brought rich trophies, in particular a lot of copper and turquoise – both were a kind of strategic raw materials for Egypt, had a high price. Djoser wisely disposed of the conquests: he used them in the improvement of the palace and the construction of his own tomb. His second campaign was directed to the south, he reached the sixth rapids of the Nile, conquered Northern Nubia and ordered the construction of a fortification wall to protect the southern borders of his possessions at the first rapids of the Nile. The palace of Pharaoh Djoser was located in Memphis – the capital of Lower Egypt, located next to Saqqara. The palace was the center of the capital. Numerous craftsmen and artisans settled around it, in particular, architects, stone carvers, sculptors… Among the architects, as the researchers believe, Imhotep originated. For some time he was probably a scribe, then he ran the “office” under the pharaoh. Not everyone knew how to read and write in Ancient Egypt. The scribes were both the chroniclers of the pharaoh, and legislators, and jurists; it largely depended on them how the state would function. It is not difficult to assess whether Imhotep achieved great success as a scribe: in the later periods of the Egyptian kingdom, the scribes revered him as the patron saint of their craft, honored him on a par with the god of wisdom Thoth. Both in sculptures and on bas-reliefs, he is invariably depicted with an open scroll in his hands – a symbol of knowledge and wisdom. STROKES TO PORTRAIT It is not yet possible to reconstruct the path of Imhotep’s ascent exactly. The most generous source of information about his life – the burial complex in Saqqara, designed and built by him, has not yet given scientists exhaustive answers. But if the assumption of the researchers is true that the great polymath of antiquity did not come from the most noble family, then it is obvious that he made a remarkable career at court solely thanks to his talents. It is impossible to say with certainty what Imhotep looked like. Found painted and sculptural images do not allow to recreate the portrait of the ancient sage. Determine how tall he was, what build, what facial features he had, would allow the study of the remains. But the tomb of Imhotep has not yet been found. Although, as it is known from ancient texts, in the old days thousands of sufferers came to his tomb – to worship him as the god of healing, to ask for healing, and at the same time for wisdom and perseverance. There is only an assumption that the tomb of Imhotep was built in Saqqara – not far from the pyramid of his master, Pharaoh Djoser, and the magnificent buildings that have glorified him for centuries. ARCHITECTURAL HERITAGE The tombs of the pharaohs of the Early and Ancient Kingdoms were mastabas – low trapezoidal structures made of stone. This tradition was changed by Imhotep. For Pharaoh Djoser, he designed something unprecedented – he installed three proportionally decreasing scales on top of each other and built a pyramid. It was the first pyramid, the largest and most amazing structure of its time. The stepped edges of the pyramid climbed stairs to the sun, to the sky, to the gods – such a bright symbolism could not remain unnoticed. This invention for many centuries determined the direction of development of the architecture of Ancient Egypt. Djoser’s pyramid looked impressive inside too. A vertical tunnel led to the burial chamber, located at a depth of 28 meters. To get into the main room, one had to overcome a five-kilometer labyrinth that looped between small rooms and hiding places, crossed the passage halls and rested against blank walls. Archaeologists discovered this miracle of architecture only in the twentieth century. The walls of the burial chambers (and in the pyramid of Djoser, built as a family tomb, there were several of them) were decorated with blue and emerald tiles, which are perfectly preserved. Alas, there were no valuables in the tomb: the robbers had time to work hard. Most of the finds during the reign of Djoser (and the time of Imhotep’s works) were discovered by the French archaeologist and Egyptologist Jean-Philippe Lauer. He devoted more than 75 years to the study of antiquities in the sands of Egypt, from the 1920s to 2001. It was he who found the step pyramid of Djoser buried in the sands, was the first to describe it, and investigated its amazing layout. He also restored the burial complex built around the stepped pyramid – another architectural creation of Imhotep. This complex is another testament to the extraordinary genius of the ancient polymath. It is interesting that the burial complex of Djoser was built not of clay bricks, but of stone, of limestone. But the main thing: in the construction of this building, Imhotep was the first to use a hitherto unseen form – vertical columns. He did not dare to leave them unsupported, they protrude from the walls, but it was also a revolutionary step. THE GOD OF HEALING Many researchers reasonably consider Imhotep the founder of modern medicine. He was one of the first to consider diseases and the healing process not as punishment or mercy of the gods, but as natural processes, and began to apply methods of treatment not related to religious rituals. Until now, no sources have been found that would confirm that Imhotep was a healer. It can be argued that his ideas contributed to the development of medical science. Imhotep’s teachings are retold in a text known as the Edwin Smith Papyrus, dated around 1500 BC. The ancient scientist knew methods of treating over 200 diseases, including a method for treating inflammation of the appendix and arthritis, he knew the healing properties of many plants and natural products. Guided by his instructions, the Egyptians consumed a lot of honey – a product with pronounced bactericidal properties, they also used honey to heal wounds. However, it should be noted that even before the birth of Imhotep, from about 2750 BC., Egyptian doctors knew human anatomy well. They knew how to do a kind of neurosurgical operations, and very successful. Obviously, they received extensive knowledge about the structure of man through mummification. During this complex procedure, the internal organs were removed from the body, inquiring minds had the opportunity to examine them well, study, and comprehend the principles of their work. The Egyptians believed that the heart is at the center of a network of channels through which blood, air and semen are carried to different parts of the body. The ancient physicians also knew that proper nutrition and adherence to the rules of hygiene create a reliable barrier to many diseases. One of the first medical recommendations was a ban on the consumption of raw fish and pork. However, in the matter of healing, the help of the gods was useful. During the treatment procedures, prayers were certainly read and special rituals were performed. There was some practical sense in it as well, because confidence in a favorable outcome of the disease is already a small victory over it. Imhotep, it seems, was, as they would say today, the popularizer of medical science, as a result, the fame of the great healer deservedly went to him. Temples were erected to him in Thebes and Memphis, people were ready to go half the world to worship him. It was then that thousands of statues of Imhotep were created: it was believed that everyone who possessed such a thing was under his patronage. At the same time, scientists believe, incredible stories about the great genius of the wise priest and chati were born: as if he cured Pharaoh Djoser of blindness, saved the kingdom from a seven-year drought, and defeated the great famine in the country. What is true in these retellings, and what is fiction or exaggeration, scientists are not ready to answer unequivocally. Time will tell, because excavations in Saqqara continue, the sands, albeit reluctantly, reveal ancient secrets. Perhaps it is there, on the plateau in the Nile Valley, that the solution to the nature of human genius will be found. [End of quote] I commenced this present article by writing: Even a year ago I would not seriously have queried the historical reality of Imhotep. As far as I was concerned, the genius Imhotep of Egypt’s so-called Third Dynasty was the clear candidate for the biblical Joseph, son of Jacob, who had saved Egypt from a seven-year Famine. Did not Imhotep do the very same on behalf of his ruler … Netjerikhet …? Joseph as Imhotep was, for me, a given, and I, consequently, was critical of certain conservative revisionists - albeit very good ones - who could not see this, and who had, as a result - by confusing Joseph with Moses in Egyptian history, as I thought - made quite impossible a full-scale revision of ancient Egypt against the Bible. And so I wrote to this effect on various occasions: If any revisionist historian had placed himself in a good position, chronologically, to identify in the Egyptian records the patriarch Joseph, then it was Dr. Donovan Courville, who had, in The Exodus Problem and its Ramifications, I and II (1971), proposed that Egypt’s Old and Middle Kingdoms were contemporaneous. That radical move on his part might have enabled Courville to bring the likeliest candidate for Joseph, the Vizier Imhotep of the Third Dynasty, into close proximity with the Twelfth Dynasty – the dynasty that revisionists most favour for the era of Moses. Courville, however, who did not consider Imhotep for Joseph, selected instead for his identification of this great biblical Patriarch another significant official, MENTUHOTEP, vizier to pharaoh Sesostris I, the second king of Egypt’s Twelfth Dynasty. And very good revisionists have followed Courville in his choice of Mentuhotep for Joseph. With my own system, though, favouring (i) Imhotep for Joseph; (ii) Amenemes [Amenemhet] I for the “new king” of Exodus 1:8; and (iii) Amenemes I’s successor, Sesostris I, for the pharaoh from whom Moses fled (as recalled in the semi-legendary “The Story of Sinuhe”), then Mentuhotep of this era must now loom large as a candidate for the Egyptianised Moses. …. What I just wrote above may still fully apply chronologically speaking. The difference now, however, is that I was no longer embracing ‘Imhotep for Joseph’ so uncritically. And here is why: Only when Brenton Minge’s book, Pharaoh’s Evidence. Egypt’s Stunning Witness to Joseph and Exodus (2023), arrived for me to review did I begin to question, not only Imhotep as Joseph, but even the very historical existence of Imhotep. Brenton Minge, who holds to a conspiracy theory view that Imhotep was a made-up imitation of the real Joseph, begins his Chapter 4: Was Imhotep … Joseph? with what has already been noted above about Imhotep – those late sources (p. 45): The problem, in historical terms, is that while Imhotep is placed around 2650 BC … his cult, or even any remembrance of him, only made its first appearance more than a millennium later. Imhotep authority Dietrich Wildung points out that, before then, “We have no clear records that Imhotep was remembered, much less venerated, for the thousand years after his death until the beginning of the New Kingdom” (emphasis added). …. Hence the Encyclopedia of Ancient History’s observation that his first claim to “deity” was in the “Late Period” (ie., around 712-332 BC) … effectively representing a 2,000-year “deity” silence from his claimed time to his earliest statue! …. On pp. 46-47, Brenton Minge will present one of his crucial arguments, that the word imhotep on the base of king Netjerikhet’s statue is not a name at all, but a title, and that the actual name of the title-holder has been carefully erased. He writes: Background In 1926, excavations at Sakkara’s Step Pyramid uncovered the base of pharaoh Netjerikhet’s statue, bearing the insignia of both the king and, as is presumed, Imhotep. Concerning the latter it reads (reading right to left): “Chancellor of the King of Upper and Lower Egypt, first after the King, Administrator of the great palace, Director of public works, Overseer of the seers [of On], Imhotep the Architect, the Builder …” … (continuing, but broken off – see below left). Imhotep Netjerikhet Statue base, Step Pyramid: Firth and Quibell, The Step Pyramid 2:pl. 58b …. Observe grain “sheaf” djed symbols. For an officeholder to appear beside his king on an Egyptian royal statue is otherwise unheard of …. Yet here the full blaze of Pharaonic glory includes the architect, side by side with his Pharaoh – a truly remarkable honour. But what of the name Imhotep itself? For two reasons, it is submitted that this was not the name of the person being honoured, but part of his titles. 1. “Imhotep” literally comes from two words: im, meaning “overseer” (as still reflected in the Arabic imam), and hotep, meaning “peaceful”, or “blessed”, as in the Field of Hotep, or “Field of the Blessed”. With the variant imy, im occurs in more than 70 Egyptian administrative titles of the Old Kingdom … always containing a meaning closer to “overseer”/ “director”. Hence “Im-hotep” (often formerly spelt with a hyphen) … would seem as much of an administrative title as all the others in the inscription, effectively meaning “overseer who comes in peace”, or, more concisely, “blessed overseer”. 2. The inscription is unfinished, with the end part (at left) being conspicuously broken off. Yet the end, according to Egyptian protocol, is precisely where the proper name belongs, as Battiscombe Gunn – later Professor of Egyptology at the University of Oxford – observed: “Egyptian titles never follow the name of their holder, but only precede it. …”. That is, THE PROPER NAME ALWAYS COMES AT THE END, AFTER THE TITLES. Therefore “blessed overseer”, by virtue of its placement as much as its wording, cannot be a name, but only a descriptive “job title”, since there is clearly more to go! The description is manifestly unfinished. As Professor R.J. Forbes, of the University of Amsterdam, observed, “Only in the case of gods do the titles follow the name, never in the case of human beings” … (recalling from the encyclopaedia above, that Imhotep’s first claim to “deity” was still millennia away). So it would seem that, assuming the inscription is authentic, this endearing title (“blessed overseer”/ “overseer of peace”) was effectively later lifted from it, and reprocessed as a proper name with a life of its own. “A later tradition”, writes The Oxford Classical Dictionary (without taking our view), “identified Imhotep … as the architect”. …. Yet it could just as readily be referring to Joseph himself, the true and known “blessed overseer” of Egypt under his king (with his Egyptian name skilfully removed at the end; see Genesis 41:45; 45:26). [End of quotes] On the matter of Pharaoh, I will note here two other of Brenton Minge’s views. He takes the name Zoser, or Djoser, as being a late addition, and so we find him often writing (e.g. p. 17): “… Netjerikhet (later called Djoser) …”. And: Contrary to the standard opinion, that the ancient Egyptians began to use the title, “Pharaoh”, only in the New Kingdom era, which would mean that the use of the word in the Book of Genesis is anachronistic, Brenton will argue that the term Pharaoh was an old usage. To simplify it here (Minge, p. 80): PHARAOH: Where is the word? For two centuries Egyptology has effectively asked the question, “Where is the title ‘Pharaoh’ in the Old and Middle Kingdoms of Egypt?” Given our insistence that Joseph and Israel’s subsequent sojourn belong in this very period (ie., dynasties 3 through to early 13), and the frequent Bible use of “Pharaoh” with them, it is incumbent on us to be able to address that question. Surprisingly though it may seem, the answer is actually staring us in the face. This is in the form of the Old and Middle Kingdom serekh, the distinctively royal rectangle accompanied by the royal falcon Horus … representing the royal palace, or “house” of the king. Just as America’s White House, though technically a building, has come to also represent the actual person of the President, so it was with Pharaoh. As Miroslav Verner notes … the royal “Residence” could equally have the Old Kingdom meaning of “building”, or “the ruler himself”. …. [End of quotes] In a series of half a dozen or more articles since then, I have solved the problem of Imhotep (at least to my own satisfaction), by multi-identifying Joseph in Egypt, for one, as Khasekhemwy-Imhotep: Joseph, whose coat was of many colours, was a man of many names (3) Joseph, whose coat was of many colours, was a man of many names | Damien Mackey - Academia.edu And the: Biblical King of the seven-year Famine (3) Biblical King of the seven-year Famine | Damien Mackey - Academia.edu was Horus Netjerikhet, not Djoser (Zoser), who was Joseph. Part Two: Old Egypt’s abundant preparations for the Famine Here I am totally dependent upon the brilliant research into the subject as I find it most skilfully rendered in Brenton Minge’s book (already referred to above), Pharaoh’s Evidence. Egypt’s Stunning Witness to Joseph and Exodus (2013, unpublished). Chapter 1: The Great Famine P. 3: Documented Nile failure and regional impact According to J-D Stanley and others, there was such a major Old Kingdom failure of Egypt’s River Nile that even “the Lake Victoria outflow ceased for a short period”. …. This must have been a catastrophic cessation of the Nile’s principal source. Though only brief in historical terms (“a short period”), such was the drought’s impact that even in the lush Nile Valley itself sand dunes appeared … while sediment cores of the fertile Faiyum reveal “severe low Nile flood discharge:….. To this day archaeologists speak of the “Old Kingdom drought” that resulted in a “catastrophic decline in the Nile flows”, reflecting Josephus’ summary of the seven-year famine that “neither did the river overflow the ground”… (i.e., there was no annual inundation). …. Pp. 5-6: “World’s oldest large dam” Disastrous though it was for other nations, the seven-year drought was met by an Egypt that was fully prepared. The remains of a sizeable dam not far from Egypt’s ancient capital of Memphis (which was itself built next to the river Nile) are consistent with this preparedness. The Garawi ravine dam (also called Sadd el-Kafara) is described as “the world’s oldest large dam” in the specialist publication Dams. …. While modest by modern standards, relative to its time it was originally a trailblazing 118.7 m (390 ft) high, and with a 98 m (320 ft) thick wall at base that still extends some 113 m (370 ft) in its length today. …. The surviving wall height, though much diminished, still represents “one of the oldest and greatest known dams” in historical terms, as Alper Baba and colleagues observe. …. Significantly the dam is dated to the Old Kingdom’s “Third Dynasty”, as Schutz, Seidel and Strauss-Seeber note. …. This is the dynasty of the famed seven-year famine that befell Egypt during the reign of king Netjerikhet. Thus the official website of the Egypt State Information Service, under its “Netjerikhet (Djoser) [sic]” entry, declares that “Egypt experienced a seven-year famine during Djoser’s reign” (emphasis added). … Used only briefly Modern engineers who have studied the dam note how well constructed it was, “exceed[ing] by far the minimum values … specified for today’s standards” (emphasis added), as Garbrecht states. …. Yet they also note the obvious haste with which it was constructed. A History of Dams author Norman Smith says that the ancient engineer “was in a great hurry to put the dam to work”. …. But why, unless he was aware of a pressing impending need for its precious water? In spite of this haste in construction, the dam was only used for a short time – a “few years at the very most”, as Smith observes of its tell-tale absence of sedimentation. “Of one thing we can be certain, however; the dam was only in use for a very short time. … [D]ams always act as traps for silt … behind the remains of the Sadd el-Kafara there is no evidence of siltation at all, indicating that the reservoir must have had a life of a few years at the very most”. …. That such a dam should ever have been built at all, and particularly not far from the river Nile, has long been a mystery. The traditional explanation for its construction – that it was to mitigate flash floods – borders on the comical, when it is recalled that the rainfall for the area averages 18 mil. (0.7 of one inch) … per year! Similarly unconvincing is the explanation for its brief usage – that it prematurely “collapsed” (hardly likely, given the acknowledged strength and stability of its construction, with its safety standards “exceed[ing] by far” today’s minimum requirements). …. Yet against the backdrop of Joseph’s famine preparations, the dam is just what we might expect. G.W. Murray’s question, asked soon after World War II, as to “why the ancient Egyptians would have wanted to store so great a body of water apparently in a hurry”… receives a perfectly reasonable answer that squares with all four aspects of the evidence: • It was built hastily, because of the known countdown to the drought • It was built not far from the Nile, so it could readily be filled in the good inundation years with an abundant supply of water • It was situated near Memphis, to drought-proof Egypt’s ancient capital • It was used, if at all, for only a “few years at the very most, because the drought, though bitter, was also relatively brief – limited to the “seven years” as revealed by God to Joseph. In short, this “stupendous dam”… as scientists Christina De La Rocha and Daniel Conley describe it, was effectively an additional form of drought “insurance”, taken out, like all insurance, before the event. In this case an event of which Joseph alone, initially, among all the nations, had prior knowledge. …. Chapter 6: Joseph’s canal and character P. 75: The extraordinary impact of Joseph upon Egypt continues down to the present, in the form of Bahr Yusef, or Joseph’s Canal. According to a recent Japanese reclamation project of Bahr Yusef, even today the canal irrigates “11 percent of [Egypt’s] total cultivated land …”. …. …. Xiaofeng Liu observes that “In c. 2300 the canal connecting the Nile and Lake Moeris was deepened and widened to form what is now known as Bahr Yusef”. …. The dating aside, there is noting to question in such a combination of natural topography and human intervention. Thus the Oxford Atlas of the World similarly calls Bahr Yusef a “principal canal” … the very word “canal”, by definition, denoting an at least substantially constructed waterway. …. P. 76: So how old is it? From the inscriptional evidence of the third dynasty, we know that a distinctive “canal” made a sudden appearance in the hieroglyphic record during that dynasty. …. This was no ordinary canal, as indicated by its designation as the “Great Canal” (mer wer). …. Such a term shows that it was largely an engineered construction, since under no circumstances could a natural waterway have been called “great”” by comparison with the mighty Nile. Confirming that this Great Canal was one and the same as Joseph’s Canal is the ancient city of Gurob, situated next to Bahr Yusef, where Joseph’s Canal turns into the Faiyum. The ancient name of the city is known to have been Great Canal … (Mer-wer) – obviously mirroring the canal on which it was situated, i.e., Bahr Yusef. …. Pp. 77-78: “Waterway of Joseph” Accordingly the BBC declares of Bahr Yusef that “We do now that between 1850 and 1650 BCE a canal was built to keep the branches of the Nile permanently open, enabling water to fill Lake Quaran and keep the [Faiyum] land fertile. This canal was so effective that it still successfully functions today…[F]or thousands of years it has only been known by one name. In Arabic it’s the Bahr Yusef. This translates into English as The Waterway of Joseph. Could this canal have been built by a certain prime Minister called Joseph? Was this Prime Minister the son of….Jacob” (Emphasis added). …. The dating, though only approximate, is not far off. Clearly the evidence is in, and it is overwhelming. From ancient attestation, to regional recognition, to pyramid harbours, to dynastic fit, to its very name, Bahr Yusef can only be Joseph’s canal. Logically it follows that the pyramids visited each year at Giza by millions, while not remotely needing to have been built by Joseph, were nevertheless enabled in their construction by his already existing canal. Once generally dismissed by Egyptologists, it is now more widely recognized that Joseph’s Canal was indeed the Old Kingdom “waterway along the western desert edge to the sides of the royal funerary complexes”, which Andrzej Cwiek describes … Miroslav Verner maintains, and Georges Goyon observes. Without, again, any necessarily taking our view, their collective take on the evidence seems confirmed by a series of drill cores and trenches from the late 1980’s which revealed, as Mark Lehner notes, “a Nile channel that ran about 200 to 300 m east of the [greater pyramid] site at Giza…[which] must have served as part of a major inland port at the centre of the Egyptian state” (emphasis added). …. This is breathtaking stuff. No wonder that the ancient historian Pompeius Trogus … expressly wrote that “Joseph…was eminently skilled in prodigies”. …. No wonder, too, that Joseph was held in such awe in the ancient world that his distinctive Step Pyramid design was imitated, at least conceptually, as far afield as China … in the East, and the Americas in the West. Pp. 86-87: Unique Step Pyramid relationship. Joseph’s building genius behind the Step Pyramid has already been established (see chs. 3 and 4). Yet the Buried Pyramid shows a remarkable relationship to it. The respective palace-facade walls of both complexes are of “exactly the same design”, their bastions of the “same measurements”, and their ingresses of “equal spaces”, as Goneim notes . …. Even the massive lengths of the respective enclosures are identical … a correspondence that can only be accounted for by deliberate (and likely common) architectural design! Both pyramids also share the identical accretion layer construction … (where the layers rest, as it were, slopingly on each other, rather than horizontally as with fourth dynasty pyramids and onwards). Both, too, are step pyramids – a similar distinctive of the third dynasty. Likewise both are the only pyramid complexes with an extensive north court/south court arrangement. In fact, here the massive c. 187 x 187m square north court is doubly accentuated, being raised six metres above the rest of the complex, and then “surrounded by an embankment wall … with bastions”, as Swelim observes, exactly like the [outside] wall of the Complex of Netjerykhet””. …. This represents a literal status “elevation” of the courts, clearly highlighting that the great enclosures were of supreme importance in the public service of the Buried Pyramid’s owner (as suggested also by the tomb’s placement alongside the Gisr el Mudir great enclosure). A similar parallel (recalling Firth and Quibell’s dummy underground “barns or storehouses” of the Step Pyramid next door) … is the vast granary-lookalike architecture of the underground Buried Pyramid. As noted by Martina Bardonova in her doctoral dissertation, “Grain Storage in Ancient Egypt”, “More resembling to a kind of storage complex are the rows of storerooms in the U-shaped corridors in the substructure of Sekhemkhet’s … pyramid” (emphasis added). .... Another indicator is the substantial Step Pyramid “boundary marker” fragment that was embedded in the Buried Pyramid’s wall during construction. …. This confirms that it was built after the Netjerikhet complex, but is clearly related to it, all the more as the piece bore part of Netjerikhet’s royal serekh. Also noteworthy is the striking “sheaf” configuration of the entrance. …. It reveals the same bundled grain shape found throughout the Step Pyramid. …. A similar “sheaf” top also occurs in the entrance to that monument’s South Tomb. ….

Sunday, October 20, 2024

Was this the original ‘Famine Stela’?

by Damien F. Mackey “Almost two millennia later, a fairly similar story would be told on the famous “Famine Stela” about the pharaoh Djoser’s making lavish donations to the temple of Khnum on Elephantine in order to terminate the seven years’ famine”. Arkadiy Demidchik Arkadiy Demidchik, member of Saint-Petersburg State University, Oriental Faculty, has picked up what he calls “a fairly similar story” between the famous Ptolemaïc Famine Stela on Sehel Island and a far more ancient document of Wahankh Intef and Nakht-Nebtepnefer Intef of Egypt’s so-called Eleventh Dynasty (wrongly dated here): A ‘Famine Stela’ Episode under the Early XIth Dynasty https://www.academia.edu/36620751/A_Famine_Stela_Episode_under_the_Early_XIth_Dynasty This is what Arkadiy Demidchik has written about it: On the orders of the early Xlth dynasty kings Wahankh Intef and Nakht-Nebtepnefer Intef, the chapels for the gods Satet and Khnum on Elep[h]antine were constructed with stone doorjambs, lintels, columns, etc. This is the oldest example of pharaohs’ monumental stone building for gods in provincial temples. What was the incentive for this grand and labor-intensive innovation in the troubled times when the young Theban monarchy controlled only a smaller part of Egypt? Careful scrutiny of the inscriptions from the chapels shows that Khnum was invoked there first and foremost as the lord of the sources of the Upper Egyptian inundation, believed to be situated at the First Cataract. Together with a good number of other texts examined in the paper, this indicates that the Intefs’ stone building project on Elephantine was undertaken in order to deliver their Theban kingdom from too low or unseasonable Nile floods which resulted in poor harvests. Almost two millennia later, a fairly similar story would be told on the famous “Famine Stela” about the pharaoh Djoser’s making lavish donations to the temple of Khnum on Elephantine in order to terminate the seven years’ famine. The idea of K[h]num’s revelation to a king in a dream, which is said to have happened to Djoser, is also attested as early as in the XXth century BC. [End of quote] But this is not all. The same Arkadiy Demidchik has also been able to point to what he has called: A Northern Version of the “Famine Stela” Narrative? https://www.academia.edu/36620738/A_Northern_Version_of_the_Famine_Stela_Narrative Here he writes: According to the “historical” introduction to the royal decree to the “Famine Stela” on the island of Sehel, the king Djoser managed to cease the seven years’ famine only due to the discovery of the source of the Upper Egyptian inundation and its gods by the sage Imhotep. However, since the Egyptians usually distinguished also Lower Egyptian inundation, with its own source near Heliopolis, there must have existed a kind of “northern” version of the “Famine Stela” story with Imhotep’s discovering the Heliopolitan source, regulated by Atum with his entourage. As early as 1999 this was pointed out by O.D. Berlev. There are mentions of “7 years” when the inundation-Hapi did not come, of the “temple of Atum of Heliopolis” and its high priest Imhotep on British Museum hieratic papyrus fragment 1065, first read by J. Quack. Could this not be scraps of that “northern” version of the “Famine Stela” narrative? [End of quote] Clearly, we are in the time of the highly famed Imhotep (Third Dynasty), the biblical Joseph, son of Jacob, when there occurred a seven-year Famine (Genesis 41-47). In various articles, now, I have multi-identified this great sage of Egypt, who became, in fact, a quasi-Pharaoh. For one, he, not the Egyptian Pharaoh of the time, Horus Netjerikhet/Netjerihedjet (3rd/11th dynasties), was Djoser (Zoser). The name “Djoser” wrongly became attached later to Horus Netjerikhet. On this, see e.g. my article: Enigmatic Imhotep – did he really exist? https://www.academia.edu/120844277/Enigmatic_Imhotep_did_he_really_exist The oldest stone architecture is associated with Imhotep and the Step Pyramid. https://www.ancient-egypt-online.com/imhotep.html “[The Step Pyramid] was the first pyramid built, as well as the first structure of any kind of cut stone”. So, when I read above about (emphasis added): “Wahankh Intef and Nakht-Nebtepnefer Intef … the chapels for the gods Satet and Khnum on Elep[h]antine were constructed with stone doorjambs, lintels, columns, etc. This is the oldest example of pharaohs’ monumental stone building for gods in provincial temples”, I must begin to wonder if the two Egyptian names presented here, presumed to be pharaonic, must actually pertain to Imhotep himself under some of his many guises: Joseph, whose coat was of many colours, was a man of many names https://www.academia.edu/121428289/Joseph_whose_coat_was_of_many_colours_was_a_man_of_many_names In this article I came up with a plethora of potential historical identifications for the biblical Joseph. Thus: The multi-named Joseph From what we have just read, Joseph's names may include Imhotep; Khasekhemwy-Imhotep; Hetep-Khasekhemwy; Khasekhem; Sekhemkhet; Den (Dewen, Udimu); Khasti; Uenephes; Usaphais (Yusef); Zaphenath paneah; Ankhtifi; Bebi and perhaps also: Hemaka; Kheti From stark obscurity, the historical Joseph now abounds! And I suspect that this will not exhaust the potential list of Egyptian (also including some Greek) names for the biblical Joseph. With reference to that last statement, can we now enlarge our list to include those Eleventh Dynasty famine-related (perhaps) names above, Wahankh Intef and Nakht-Nebtepnefer Intef? The latter is poorly known, and I expect that these names would pertain to just the one person. The name Intef may well connect with Ankhtifi as an abbreviation of it. I have already written of this Ankhtifi as one acting as if he himself were the very Pharaoh of Egypt: Ankhtifi of ancient Egypt substituting for the king https://www.academia.edu/121998381/Ankhtifi_of_ancient_Egypt_substituting_for_the_king and: Egypt’s high official, Ankhtifi, outboasts even great Senenmut https://www.academia.edu/120059538/Egypt_s_high_official_Ankhtifi_outboasts_even_great_Senenmut Taking Intef (I-III) as a whole, we read the following most interesting information: https://ancientegyptonline.co.uk/intefiii/ …. [Intef] is also thought to be the father of Montuhotep II, who successfully reunited Egypt. This view is supported by a relief found at Wadi Shatt el-Rigal (near Gebel es-Silsila) and the decoration on a block of masonry in the temple of Montu at Tod which seems to depict Montuhotep II with three kings named Intef (Intef I, Intef II, and Intef III). However, it is also proposed by some that Montuhotep II was not related to Intef III, but wished to be associated with him to ensure his position as pharaoh. Now, Mentuhotep II Netjerihedjet is my Eleventh Dynasty Pharaoh of the Famine – he being the same as Horus Netjerikhet of the Third Dynasty. Just as the Eleventh Dynasty Intef was the supposed father of Mentuhotep II, so had I noted of the Third Dynasty Khasekhemwy that he is thought to have been the father of Horus Netjerikhet, adding: “Khasekhemwy, as Joseph-Imhotep, was indeed a “Father to Pharaoh” (Genesis 45:8)”. The Pharaoh, of course, was not the blood son of Joseph, “but”, as said above, he “wished to be associated with him”. It happened in antiquity that a powerful Vizier would be called “father”, as in the case of the wicked Haman - a non-Persian - in the Book of Esther (8:11): “[Haman] so completely enjoyed the goodwill that we extend to all nations that we regarded him as our father before whom all should bow down, and we proclaimed him to rank second in line to the royal throne”. Intef’s (so-called II) long floruit in Egypt is well suited to Joseph, who lived to be 110. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intef_II “Wahankh Intef II (also Inyotef II and Antef II) was the third ruler of the Eleventh Dynasty of Egypt during the First Intermediate Period. He reigned for almost fifty years from 2112 BC to 2063 BC.[2] …. …. After the death of the nomarch Ankhtifi, Intef was able to unite all the southern nomes down to the First Cataract. After this he clashed with his main rivals, the kings of Herakleopolis Magna for the possession of Abydos. The city changed hands several times, but Intef II was eventually victorious, extending his rule north to the thirteenth nome”. But what I am tentatively proposing is that Intef was this Ankhtifi. And that he was the biblical Joseph, whose coat of many colours matched his many colourful names and titles in ancient Egypt.

Joseph, whose coat was of many colours, was a man of many names

by Damien F. Mackey And, perhaps most telling of all, Manetho's Usaphais, a virtually perfect Greek transliteration of the Semitic name, Yusef (=Usaph-), or Joseph. Apparently in the search for the historical Joseph, as was the case with Moses, one will need to - in order to find him in all of his fulness - course through various of the old Egyptian dynasties, both Old Kingdom and so-called 'Middle' Kingdom. This is what I have come up with so far: Basically, Joseph was - as many are now thinking (see Internet and You Tube) - Imhotep of Egypt's Third Dynasty, who brilliantly served Horus Netjerikhet. But Imhotep, simply qua Imhotep, does not appear to be very well attested from contemporaneous records, so much so that some say he may never have existed, but may have been a later (say, Ramesside, or Ptolemaïc) fabrication. That problem can be nicely solved, I think, by recognising Imhotep as the Second Dynasty, or the Third Dynasty character, Khasekhemwy-Imhotep (variously Hetep-Khasekhemwy, Khasekhem, or Sekhemkhet). Of this Khasekhemwy, we read (Britannica) that "... he was the first to use extensive stone masonry". But, then, something similar is said again of Horus Den (Dewen, Udimu) of the First Dynasty. Thus, Nicolas Grimal (A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell, p. 53. My emphasis): "In the tomb built by Den at Abydos a granite pavement was found, the first known example of stone-built architecture, which until then had been exclusively of mud brick". And it is said, again, of Netjerikhet (ibid., p. 64): "... Netjerykhet ... is famed for having invented stone-built architecture with the help of his architect Imhotep ...". Very confusing! "... Den ... first known example of stone-built architecture ...". Khasekhemwy "... first to use extensive stone masonry". "... stone-built architecture [invented] with the help of ... Imhotep ...". Never mind, if - as I am proposing - Den, was Khasekhemwy, was Imhotep. Now, Den supposedly had a powerful Chancellor, Hemaka, who might likewise be considered as a potential candidate for Joseph (Wikipedia, article "Hemaka". My emphasis): One of Hemaka's titles was that of "seal-bearer of the King of Lower Egypt" ... effectively identifying him as chancellor and second in power only to the king. .... The tomb of Hemaka is larger than the king's own tomb, and for years was mistakenly thought as belonging to Den. But not a mistake if Hemaka was Den! And Den's wife, Merneith, may be the same as Ahaneth, a name almost identical to that of Joseph's wife, Aseneth (Asenath/Ahaneth) (Cf. Genesis 41:45, 50; 46:20). This Ahaneth must have been very important considering the large size of her tomb. Den's ruler may have been Horus Djer, which name recalls Horus Netjerikhet. Joseph's given Egyptian name, Zaphenath paneah, which biblical commentators generally find so difficult to interpret, I have connected in some of its elements, as a hypocoristicon, with Ankhtifi, a quasi-pharaonic like official (of no definitely fixed address) whose records boast of him as being 'unlike any man ever born', and who fails even to make any clear reference to his ruler. Ankhtifi, and the prolonged Famine of his time, with people cannibalising one another, I have linked to other similarly-described famines, of Bebi, and also the one at the time of Heqanakht. And I have then tentatively suggested a connection between the Famine personage, Bebi, and the Vizier of that same name serving Mentuhotep, so-called II, of the Eleventh Dynasty ('Middle' Kingdom). This powerful king, Mentuhotep, also had a Chancellor of Ankhtifi-like prominence and importance, Kheti. Previously I wrote on King and Chancellor pairings: Once again, as with Horus Netjerikhet and Imhotep, Saqqara ("Sakkara") takes centre stage. Den may here have been recording Horus Djer's Sed festival rather than his own. Similarly, Mentuhotep's quasi-pharaonic vizier, Kheti, will be prominent in the case of his Pharaoh's Sed festival, presumably as its organiser. So far, I have not even come to this Kheti, whose name may be a hypocoristicon of Sekhem-khet (= Zoser/Imhotep). In Djer/Hemaka; Djer/Den; and Mentuhotep/Kheti, we have, I believe, three variant combinations of the one King and Chancellor. And we have not even included here Netjerikhet/Imhotep. The multi-named Joseph From what we have just read, Joseph's names may include Imhotep; Khasekhemwy-Imhotep; Hetep-Khasekhemwy; Khasekhem; Sekhemkhet; Den (Dewen, Udimu); Khasti; Uenephes; Usaphais (Yusef); Zaphenath paneah; Ankhtifi; Bebi and perhaps also: Hemaka; Kheti From stark obscurity, the historical Joseph now abounds! And I suspect that this will not exhaust the potential list of Egyptian (also including some Greek) names for the biblical Joseph.

Friday, October 11, 2024

Çatalhöyük – don’t fence me in

“The Turkish government did not stop there, either. After banning Mellaart, officials erected a huge fence around Çatalhöyük. And no one else dug there for the next thirty years. Unfortunately, they also left the site exposed to the elements. Before long, rain and heat destroyed several priceless murals. And mudbrick homes that had lasted nine thousand years crumbled into dust in months. All because of James Mellaart had gotten into a spat with the Turkish government”. ________________________________________ October 24, 2023 People & Politics If Indiana Jones Were a Swindler
James Mellaart discovered one of the most important archaeological sites ever. But his lust for treasure led him to lose it all. https://www.sciencehistory.org/stories/disappearing-pod/if-indiana-jones-were-a-swindler/ Her name was Anna. And as soon as she entered the train car, James Mellaart was bewitched. It wasn’t because she was beautiful, although she was. It was the bracelet on her wrist, gleaming gold. His trained eye instantly recognized it as a treasure from the days of ancient Troy. It was spring 1958, and the 33-year-old Mellaart was traveling through western Turkey. He was a plump man with thick glasses, a no-name archaeologist from England. The discoveries that would make him famous were still years away. But he burned with ambition. His obsession in life was Turkey. He had moved to Turkey years earlier, and had married a Turkish archaeologist. He was especially obsessed with a region of central Turkey called Anatolia, or Asia Minor. Mellaart wanted to prove that Anatolia had a history every bit as glorious as Rome or Greece. So as soon as he saw the Anatolian bracelet on the arm of the woman in the train, he was transfixed. He screwed up his courage and introduced himself. Her name was Anna Papastrati. She spoke English well. She told him she lived in Izmir, a city on the Turkish coast. As Mellaart peppered her with questions, she revealed that she had a whole horde of similar treasures at her house. Did Mellaart want to see them? Of course he did. But, Mellaart had no place to stay in Izmir. Anna, though, offered to put him up for the night at her house. However excited, Mellaart hesitated. His wife would be furious about him sleeping at a strange woman’s home. But his lust for archaeology got the better of him. Besides, it was just one night. He said yes. He had no idea that this one night would haunt him for the rest of his life. In Izmir, Mellaart and Anna took the ferry to her home. But before they examined the artifacts, Anna insisted on cooking him dinner. They dined overlooking the water, under candlelight, with a bottle of wine. Afterward, Anna wanted to linger at the table and chat, but Mellaart insisted on seeing the artifacts. They did not disappoint. There were gold earrings, ivory combs, jeweled daggers, necklaces with turquoise and amber. Mellaart recognized them as belonging to the so-called Yortan culture, which thrived thousands of years ago near the fabled city of Troy. Anna said the treasures came from a place called Dorak, a town south of Istanbul. They’d been unearthed during a war in the 1920s. But she dodged Mellaart’s questions about how she’d come to obtain them. Mellaart did not press her. And he soon forgot such questions amid his excitement over the treasures. He spent the whole next day studying them. When night fell, Anna encouraged him to stay another night. So he did. The same thing happened the next day and the next. In all he spent a week in Anna’s home, fawning over the treasures while she fawned over him. Mellaart made detailed drawings of the artifacts, but Anna forbid him from taking photographs. Instead, she promised to mail him some photos. This seemed odd, but Mellaart agreed and gave her his address. And upon finally leaving her home, he slyly noted her address—217 Kazim Dirik Street. Then Mellaart went back home to his wife, and waited for Anna’s letter. A whole month passed, then another. Summer arrived and drifted into fall. But still no letter from Anna. Mellaart began to fret like a jilted lover. Why hadn’t she written yet? Did he do something wrong? He finally could not take it anymore, and wrote to her instead. No answer came. Meanwhile, Mellaart was busy doing other archaeology. In fact, that November, he made a discovery that would catapult him to worldwide fame. It involved a site called Çatalhöyük in south-central Turkey. It’s a 9000-year-old city, perhaps the first true city in history. And beyond its incredible age, other things made the place special, too. People in Çatalhöyük lived in mudbrick homes that stood just inches apart. There were no streets, no parks, no open spaces. People got from place to place by walking across each other’s roofs. The houses didn’t have doors, either. People entered and exited their homes on ladders through skylights. Çatalhöyük was a sky city. The insides of the homes were special, too. People painted spectacular murals on the walls—of bulls, vultures, leopards. They crafted figurines of animals and goddesses as well. Most fascinating of all, the people of Çatalhöyük buried their dead inside their homes—and did so right in the dirt beneath their beds. Every night you would tuck in to sleep with the skeletons of grandma and grandpa and your crazy uncle just inches beneath your head. When Mellaart discovered Çatalhöyük in 1958, the city was buried beneath a giant mound of dirt sixty feet tall, with weeds covering it. But even during preliminary digs, he could tell Çatalhöyük was special—the murals, the skeletons in the bedroom, the people walking on the roofs. Who wouldn’t be enchanted? Even while making these spectacular discoveries, however, Mellaart’s heart was still elsewhere—on the Dorak treasures. In between digs at Çatalhöyük, he spent many empty months pining over the treasures and writing Anna letters that she never answered. Until one day, finally, she wrote back. Mellaart tore open the letter, his heart pounding. But it was disappointingly brief. And it contained none of the promised photographs. Anna finished by saying, “You were always more interested in these old things than in me.” It was signed “Love, Anna.” Mellaart never heard from Anna again. Baffled and heartbroken, he finally gave up writing her. Then he published a short article about the treasures in a British magazine, along with his drawings. And he thought that would be that, but the article caused a big stir among archaeologists. What amazing treasures! Unfortunately, it also landed Mellaart in a world of trouble. You see, the Turkish government was quite sensitive about its ancient artifacts, for good reason. Centuries of looting and smuggling had robbed Turkey of much of its cultural history. There were strict laws there about reporting all archaeological finds. But no one had reported the Dorak artifacts. They were undocumented, and government officials were furious to find out about them in a magazine. Who was this Anna anyway? How did she get her hands on such treasures? The officials demanded that Mellaart turn Anna in. Having no other choice, he gave them her address—217 Kazim Dirik Street in Izmir. But upon arriving in Izmir, the officials noticed something strange. 217 Kazim Dirik Street was a shopping center. No one lived there. There were no houses or apartments nearby, either. Something was not adding up. And that’s when Turkish officials began to suspect that James Mellaart was not telling them everything he knew. When they could not find Anna, Turkish officials turned their investigation—and anger—toward James Mellaart. They accused him of working with smugglers. They figured the point of the magazine article was to hype the Dorak treasures and drive up their price. Then, after the smugglers sold the goods, Mellaart would take a cut of the profits. When confronted with these charges, Mellaart denied everything. In fact, privately, he was starting to suspect that Anna was the one working with smugglers. Had it really been a coincidence that he’d met her on the train? And would she really be wearing ancient treasures on vacation? Perhaps she was a plant. Perhaps she had deliberately worn the bracelet to grab his attention. Then, after he confirmed the goods as authentic, she had disappeared and handed them to smugglers to sell. Mellaart confessed his suspicions to the Turkish authorities. But they did not buy his theory. It seemed too convenient. Plus, after digging around a bit, they caught Mellaart in a few lies about Anna. One lie involved when he had met Anna. Sometimes he said 1952, sometimes 1958. Mellaart protested that he was just trying to avoid troubles with his wife. He hadn’t been married in 1952, and he sometimes gave that earlier date to avoid questions about him shacking up with another woman. However understandable, the lies undermined Mellaart’s credibility. The Turkish newspapers were soon buzzing with stories about the fat greedy foreigner who was stealing Turkey’s heritage. Now, all this while, Mellaart continued to dig at Çatalhöyük, the ancient city where people walked across the roofs and buried their family members beneath their beds. In fact, his discoveries there won him worldwide renown. But as a foreigner, Mellaart needed permits to dig in Turkey. And as the Dorak scandal grew, Turkish officials began threatening those permits. In 1964, they denied the permits completely, meaning Mellaart couldn’t excavate that year. Mellaart was furious. He threw an absolute fit. By calling in some favors, he managed to win his permits back in 1965. But it was a short-lived victory. Because another scandal soon erupted. For the excavation at Çatalhöyük, Mellaart had hired diggers from local villages in Turkey. Whenever the workers found something special—like a leopard statue, or a goddess figurine—they told Mellaart. Mellaart then reported every item to the Turkish government—or at least every item he knew about. One day in mid-summer 1965, a government official visited an antique shop twenty miles from Çatalhöyük. On the shelves there, she was shocked to see three figurines from Çatalhöyük for sale. All illegally. She seized the figurines and demanded that the shopkeeper tell her where he got them. He claimed that diggers from the site had just walked in one day and sold them. So the official grabbed the shopkeeper by the ear, and dragged him to the dig site to confront Mellaart. Upon seeing the figurines, Mellaart’s heart sank. They were undoubtedly from Çatalhöyük. But he denied all knowledge of wrongdoing. He led the shopkeeper over to his workers. The shopkeep quickly fingered four of them as the culprits. A heated argument erupted, with accusations flying back and forth. The workers denied everything. And they were so angry about being called thieves that they quit on the spot—as did all the other workers. Mellaart now faced disaster. Although innocent, his name would be sullied by this scandal, since it took place on his dig site. Equally bad, without diggers, work on the site pretty much stopped for the year. And it soon became clear that the digging would not resume anytime soon. Mellaart tried to apply for more permits the next year. The government denied them—and told Mellaart he’d be lucky to ever work in Turkey again. Meanwhile, there was a twist with the saga of the Dorak treasures. The British tabloids had been following the Mellaart scandal avidly. And in 1966, two reporters went down to Turkey to dig up some dirt. What they found shocked them. They visited Izmir, the city where Anna lived. They began searching for her at 217 Kazim Dirik street. To their bafflement, they realized that there were two streets with that name in the same city. One was indeed a shopping center. But the other was a residence. They raced right over. Had they found Anna at last? That’s when the story swerved again. The reporters learned that, a few years earlier, the government had renamed several local roads. The government was trying to bring some order to the city’s chaotic street plan. And while they were at it, officials renumbered all the houses as well. The bottom line was, between the renaming and renumbering—as well as the general turnover of people moving in and out of the neighborhood—no one quite remembered where the old 217 Kazim Dirik Street was. The journalists searched and searched, but never found a trace of Anna. The development left Mellaart in agony. It was partial vindication—proof, he said, that the Turkish government had botched its original investigation. But it fell short of the exoneration he needed. Without Anna, he could not prove his innocence. As a result, the Turkish government retained the upper hand. The government soon banned Mellaart from Çatalhöyük for life. Mellaart had discovered Çatalhöyük—one of the most important archaeological sites in history. But he never set eyes on it again. The Turkish government did not stop there, either. After banning Mellaart, officials erected a huge fence around Çatalhöyük. And no one else dug there for the next thirty years. Unfortunately, they also left the site exposed to the elements. Before long, rain and heat destroyed several priceless murals. And mudbrick homes that had lasted nine thousand years crumbled into dust in months. All because of James Mellaart had gotten into a spat with the Turkish government. In the end, the Dorak treasures never turned up. Like Anna, they vanished. And overall it’s probably impossible to say what really happened in the Dorak affair. The simplest explanation is that Mellaart just made the whole thing up. Or perhaps the treasures did exist, but Mellaart changed key details about them or about Anna, perhaps to protect her. For his part, Mellaart went to his death in 2012 claiming he had been framed. And many archaeologists who knew him still believe he’s innocent. But other clues say perhaps not. As of now, the only tangible evidence that Anna existed is the letter she sent to Mellaart saying she loved him. But there are some fishy details about that letter. For one thing, in the letter’s address line, Anna misspelled “Kazim Dirik” Street. Which seems a bit suspicious, considering she lived there. And that’s not all. Anna dated the letter as 10-dash-18, October 18th. But instead of the numeral 1, there’s a capital I in the 10 and the 18. Read literally, it says I-zero and I-eight. Which is weird. Who beyond the Romans would use an I for a 1 like that? Well, James Mellaart’s wife did. For whatever reason, when his wife wrote letters to people, she usually typed a capital I instead of a 1. And is it really a coincidence that Anna supposedly did as well? More likely, Mellaart’s wife was in on the hoax. How ironic if, after all that smoke from Mellaart about his wife getting angry over Anna, his wife was maybe helping him perpetrate a fraud the whole time. Even worse for Mellaart, after his death, his family found something disturbing. His office was full of fake, supposedly ancient artifacts from Anatolia. It’s not clear why Mellaart was making them. Perhaps to sell. Or, perhaps he was forging them for scholarly reasons. Again, he was obsessed with proving that Anatolia had a glorious past. So perhaps he invented fraudulent evidence to support that theory. Regardless, this discovery further undermined an already teetering reputation. And the worst part is, it was all so unnecessary. The incident with Anna supposedly took place in spring 1958. And later that same year, Mellaart discovered Çatalhöyük—which proved beyond all doubt that Anatolia did have a glorious past, a past every bit as grand as Rome or Greece. But because of his alleged misdeeds, Mellaart was banned from exploring that past. In the end, his invented treasures cost him the real ones.

Thursday, October 10, 2024

Abram (Abraham), Egypt, the Four Kings

by Damien F. Mackey Abraham was the first of the Hebrew patriarchs and a figure highly revered by the three great monotheistic religions—Judaism, Christianity, and Islam. His name contains the “Father” element both in its original short form, Abram (אַבְרָם), “Exalted Father”, and after the Lord had changed it, to Abraham (אַבְרָהָם), “Father of many nations”, as explained in Genesis 17:4-5: ‘Behold, I make my covenant with thee, and thou shalt be a Father of many nations. Neither shall thy name anymore be called Abram, but thy name shall be Abraham …’. Abram came from Ur of the Chaldees. This was not the Ur in southern (Iraq) Mesopotamia, but Ur (or Urfa) near Haran (the Ebla tablets tell of “Ur in Haran”), not far from where Noah’s Ark had landed on the mountain Karaca Dağ. Pope Francis actually went to Ur in Iraq in 2021, as John Paul II had intended to do: https://aleteia.org/2024/09/01/pope-francis-crazy-gamble-his-historic-visit-to-iraq “But the head of the Catholic Church had no intention of reliving the disappointment of his predecessor, John Paul II, who reluctantly had to abandon his historic trip to Iraq to inaugurate the Great Jubilee of the Year 2000 in the land of Abraham, the father of believers”. Well, as they say, to Ur is human. There are various legends associated with Abram, his father, Terah, and Nimrod in Ur. Nimrod I have identified with Sargon of Akkad, and I think he was also Naram-Sin. Abram was, indeed, a (younger) contemporary of this Nimrod. Some of these legends seem to have borrowed from later events, such as the Magi star and Herodian infanticide (there is even one about Abram thrown into a fiery furnace). What is sure is that the son, Abram, was far more Godly than was his idolatrous father, Terah. A Jewish writer for Chabad.org tells this story of Abram, Terah and Nimrod: https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/112333/jewish/Nimrod-and-Abraham.htm Nimrod and Abraham The Two Rivals Nimrod's Humble Heritage Nimrod the mighty hunter was one of the sons of Kush. Kush was the son of Ham, the lowest and least important of Noah's three sons. Nimrod came from a line which was cursed by Noah: "Cursed be Canaan, a slave of slaves shall he be unto his brothers." By birth, Nimrod had no right to be a king or ruler. But he was a mighty strong man, and sly and tricky, and a great hunter and trapper of men and animals. His followers grew in number, and soon Nimrod became the mighty king of Babylon, and his empire extended over other great cities. As was to be expected, Nimrod did not feel very secure on his throne. He feared that one day there would appear a descendant of Noah's heir and successor, Shem, and would claim the throne. He was determined to have no challenger. Some of Shem's descendants had already been forced to leave that land and build their own cities and empires. There was only one prominent member of the Semitic family left in his country. He was Terah, the son of Nahor. Terah was the eighth generation removed, in a direct line of descendants from Shem. But Nimrod had nothing to fear from Terah, his most loyal and trusted servant. Terah had long before betrayed his family, and had become a follower of Nimrod. All of his ancestors were still living, including Shem himself, but Terah left his ancestral home and became attached to Nimrod. Terah, who should have been the master and Nimrod his slave, became the slave of Nimrod. Like the other people in that country, Terah believed that Nimrod received his kingdom as a gift from the "gods," and was himself a "god." Terah was prepared to serve Nimrod with all his heart. Indeed, he proved himself a very loyal and useful servant. Nimrod entrusted into his hands the command of his armies and made Terah the highest minister in his land. Terah was short of nothing but a wife. So he found himself a wife, whose name was Amathlai. They looked forward to raising a large family, but they were not blessed with any children. The years flew by, and Terah still had no son. His father was only twenty-nine years old when he, Terah, was born. But Terah was getting closer to seventy than to thirty, and yet there was no son! He prayed to Nimrod and to his idols to bless him with a son, but his prayers were not answered. Little did he know that Nimrod felt happy about Terah's misfortune. For although Nimrod had nothing to fear from Terah, he could not be sure if Terah's sons would be as loyal to him as their father. Therefore, he was inwardly very pleased that his servant Terah had no children, and probably would never have any. But he could not be, sure, and Nimrod was not taking chances. He ordered his stargazers and astrologers to watch the sky for any sign of the appearance of a possible rival. The Rise of Abraham One night the star-gazers noticed a new star rising in the East. Every night it grew brighter. They informed Nimrod. Nimrod called together his magicians and astrologers. They all agreed that it meant that a new baby was to be born who might challenge Nimrod's power. It was decided that in order to prevent this, all new-born baby-boys would have to die, starting from the king's own palace, down to the humblest slave's hut. And who was to be put in charge of this important task? Why, Terah, of course, the king's most trusted servant. Terah sent out his men to round up all expectant mothers. The king's palace was turned into a gigantic maternity ward. A lucky mother gave birth to a girl, and then they were both sent home, laden with gifts. But if the baby happened to be a boy, he was put to death without mercy. One night, Nimrod's star-gazers watching that new star, saw it grow very bright and suddenly dart across the sky, first in one direction then in another, west, east, north and south, swallowing up all other stars in its path. Nimrod was with his star-gazers on the roof of his palace, and saw the strange display in the sky with his own eyes. "What is the meaning of this?" he demanded. "There can be only one explanation. A son was born tonight who would challenge the king's power, and the father is none other than Terah." "Terah?!" Nimrod roared. "My own trusted servant?" Nimrod's Rage Nimrod had never given a thought to Terah as becoming a father at the age of seventy. However, if he did become a father, he would surely be glad to offer his first-born son to his king and god! Nimrod dispatched a messenger to Terah at once, ordering him to appear together with his newly born son. That night Terah and his wife Amathlai had indeed become the happy parents of a baby boy, who brought a great light and radiance into their home. Terah had hoped it would be a girl, and he would have no terrible decision to make. Now he could not think of giving up this lovely baby, born to him at his old age after such longing. He had managed to keep his wife's expectancy a secret. None of his servants knew about the birth of his son. There was a secret passage leading from his palace to a cave in the field. He took the baby to that cave and left it there. As he was returning to the palace, past the servants' quarters, he suddenly heard the cry of a baby. What good fortune! Terah cried. It so happened that one of his servants had given birth to a boy about the same time as his own son was born. Terah took the baby and put him in silk swaddling and handed him to his wife to nurse. Just then the king's messenger arrived. When Terah with the baby in his arms appeared before Nimrod, Terah declared: "I was just about to bring my son to you, when your messenger came." Nimrod thought it was mighty loyal of Terah to give up his only son, born to him in his old age. Little did he know that it was not Terah's son who was brought to die, but a servant's. Abraham Emerges For three years little Abraham remained in the cave, where he did not know day from night. Then he came out of the cave and saw the bright sun in the sky, and thought that it was G d, who had created the heaven and the earth, and him, too. But in the evening the sun went down, and the moon rose in the sky, surrounded by myriads of stars. "This must be G d," Abraham decided. But the moon, too, disappeared, and the sun reappeared, and Abraham decided that there must be a G d Who rules over the sun and the moon and the stars, and the whole world. And so, from the age of three years and on, Abraham knew that there was only one G d, and he was resolved to pray to Him and worship Him alone. A life full of many and great adventures began for Abraham …. So much for the fantastic legends. But was Abraham real? For one, the name Abram has been found at Ebla, not far from Abram’s Haran (map). And, the city of Nahur in the Mari archive may reflect the name of Abram’s grandfather, Nahor (Genesis 11:22), whose name was passed on to Abram’s brother, Nahor (v. 27). The other brother was Haran, the name of the place in which Abram settled after Ur. THE REAL ABRAHAM The Ebla Tablets and the Abraham Tradition David Noel Freedman …. Of particular interest are the names of places and persons. We find an extensive area of overlap between the Ebla tablets and the biblical text. Among the many personal names in both the Bible and the tablets are the following: Abram, David, Esau, Ishmael, Israel, Micaiah, Michael, and Saul. We have normalized the spelling of these names to conform to the biblical pattern, but the spelling in Eblaite is so close in all cases that there can be no question of the identity of the names. (In no case can we say the persons are identical, however.) In some cases, notably that of David (which in Eblaite is spelled da-ud-um), the name is not known from any other source in ancient times. Such occurrences point back to a common basis in language and culture for the ancestors of the Israelites and the people of Ebla. Actually, this is no surprise, because the Bible, while not mentioning Ebla, does point to this region as the fatherland of the Israelites. The patriarchs came to Canaan from Haran, where elements of their kinship group continued to live long after Abraham and his family had departed. A bride was brought from there for Isaac; and Jacob returned to his kinsmen there when prudence called for a rapid removal from Canaan. Haran is not very far away from Ebla, and is often mentioned in the Ebla texts. If an archive exists at Haran at the same stratigraphic level, and is ever found, those tablets should contain even more specific information about the patriarchs and their forebears, and should have closer contacts and correlations with the Bible. As it is, Ebla draws from the common pool of terms, names, and traditions which was shared by the biblical people. …. There may be even more relevant information than this, but Ebla, like Göbekli Tepe, has had something of a lid put on it by agenda-driven powers that be. In the Hindu religion: https://www.reddit.com/r/religion/comments/z3g3pf/brahma_abraham_and_sarah_saraswati_how_related/#:~:text=Brahma%20and%20Sarasvati%20lived%20toge Brahma / Abraham and Sarah / Saraswati. How related are they? Brahma is father of All (RV7.97b), while Abraham is father of many nations (Gen 17:5) Brahma’s wife is his sister Sarasvati (SV7.96.2), and she was a great beauty (AV19.17; KenU3), while Abraham’s wife, Sarah, is also his sister (Gen 20:12) and is beautiful (Gen 12:14). Saraswati is known for being a goddess of water, the name means something like retains water. The River Saraswati (PraU1.6) has a tributary named Ghaggar, reflective of the name of Sarah’s maidservant, Hagar. Sarah from Hebrew (שרר sharar) means ruler and / or retains water. Brahma and Sarasvati lived together for 100 years, then had their first son, while Abraham was 100 and Sarah was 90 when they had Isaac (Gen 21.5). Brahma’s son (or grandson), Daksha, is killed as the offering sacrifice before all the gods, while Abraham almost offers his son Isaac. At the pleading of his father, Brihaspati (born from Brahma’s body, RV3.23.1) Daksha is resurrected with the head of a ram, while Abraham finds a ram caught in a bush to sacrifice in place of his son Isaac (Gen 22:1-13). Brahma’s hidden offering (AV19.42.1-2), relates to Abraham’s offering of a ram caught in a bush. There are many more overlaps. …. Archaeology of the Abrahamic Era When historians and archaeologists wrongly identify a particular biblical era, then that usually serves to vitiate the fine fabric overall. For instance, the conventional archaeologists have made a huge mistake - though probably a fairly excusable one in this case - by identifying the nomadic Abraham and his family with the nomadic Middle Bronze I (MBI) people, who were, in fact, the much later Exodus Israelites. Once such a tsunami of a mistake has been made, then it sends unwanted ripples all the way down the line. Thus, apart from the Era of Abraham now no longer being identifiable, the major Exodus and Conquest scenarios, too - which actually belong to MBI - can no longer be identified. And so on it goes. Nelson Glueck, rabbi academic and archaeologist, and his erudite colleagues, could perhaps be forgiven for seizing upon the MBI nomads as appearing to be the right people, in the right era and area, for the Abrahamites - especially since the MBI age has been dated c. 2000-1550 BC, including the correct chronology for Abraham. Well correct, that is, if one follows the conventional system, which, however, sadly, is nearly always wrong. Moreover, so great was the reputation of Nelson Glueck that no one of academic note was likely to gainsay him. Dr. John Osgood, a Creationist, to whom the credit goes, I believe, for being the first and only one to identify the archaeological era of Abram (Abraham), has this to say about Nelson Glueck’s archaeological identification (in “The Times of Abraham”): https://creation.com/the-times-of-abraham Present time placement of Abraham The accepted or evolutionary time scale for the Paleolithic to Iron Age sequence, when placed side by side with the known time relationships in the Scripture concerning Abraham, allows a placement of Abraham of somewhere around the Middle Bronze I period (abbreviated MB I variously referred to as Early Bronze IV (EB IV) in Palestine, or Intermediate Early Bronze-Middle Bronze (see Figure 1). The placement originally of Abraham in this time slot can be largely traced to Nelson Glueck, with support from William Albright. Nelson Glueck was one who asserted the correctness historically of Scripture, yet held an evolutionary chronology and so placed Abraham in Middle Bronze I. [Dr. Osgood’s Figure 1. Time scheme of the accepted evolutionary chronology]. ‘If one believes, as we do, in the validity of the historical memories of the Bible, and if one accepts as real flesh and blood human beings the personages reflected in the portrayals of the Biblical Patriarchs, then the Age of Abraham must be assigned to the Middle Bronze I period, ending in the nineteenth century B.C… The only archaeological framework in which the person and period of Abraham in the Negeb can be placed is Middle Bronze I.’2 In that same discussion, Nelson Glueck insists that the destructions of MB I settlements corresponded to the biblical account of the destruction inflicted by Chedorlaomer and his confederates (Genesis 14). However, apart from the statement of such, he offered no positive evidence to confirm that such an historical link-up can be made more secure than the simple statement of belief. William Albright was quick to ally himself with Nelson Glueck and established a belief that Abraham was one who plied a trade as a donkey caravaneer between Mesopotamia and Egypt. This is a belief that was Albright’s, but certainly does not conform to the Scriptures, in the literal sense. ‘Nelson Glueck was prompt to associate the biblical traditions of Abraham with the MB I remains in the Negeb; he also recognised the fact that the settlements from this age were connected with old caravan routes.’3 So the MB I period of Palestine has since been indelibly associated with the time of Abraham in the minds of many. …. A need for a re-evaluation In no way can it be said that the times of Abraham have been established. Moreover, there is much about the presently accepted archaeological time slot which makes one feel quite uneasy. Abraham was the product of a generation that can be traced in the Bible ten generations from the Flood, the Bible narrative giving the impression that only about 430 years elapsed from the time of the world wide [sic] catastrophic Flood until the times of Abraham in Canaan (see Figure 2). Yet on the accepted time scale we are to admit huge amounts of time for the development of civilizations prior to the times of Abraham. …. Dr. Osgood will then proceed to render obsolete (my opinion) all other different attempts at pin-pointing the archaeological era for Abraham. He will do so by analysing the campaign of the four invading kings of Genesis 14, including Amraphel king of Shinar – another of my alter egos for Nimrod (= Sargon of Akkad; Naram-Sin). I shall consider this episode later, for, firstly, Abram has to go to Egypt, to escape from a deadly famine. A comment on Dr. Osgood: It is intriguing that he who has succeeded so brilliantly in unveiling the archaeological era of Abram, and has written as well as any – if not better – on the MBI Israelites of the Exodus and Conquest, and has sorted out the important archaeology of Jericho, has also managed to arrive at a fatal (I think) archaeological conclusion that must inevitably have that unwanted ripple effect as referred to above. For Dr. Osgood has - along with other (now deceased) conservative Christian writers whom he admires, namely Drs. Donovan Courville and David Down - concluded that the important Hammurabi of Babylon was a Middle Bronze Age ruler, and a contemporary of Joshua. These three Christian doctors had all taken a ruler of Hazor, named Jabin, mentioned in the Mari (see map above) archive as being the King Jabin whom Joshua had defeated and killed (Joshua 11:1-10). Unfortunately for Drs. Courville, Down and Osgood, Jabin was something of a generic name for rulers of Hazor. There were several of them, one (Jabin), again, being later, at the time of the prophetess Deborah (Judges 4:2). And neither of these kings Jabin was the Jabin of the Mari archive contemporaneous with Hammurabi king of Babylon, who - as has now been determined beyond doubt - belonged centuries later still, to the time of King Solomon of Israel (c. 950 BC). It is not hard to imagine what chaos might be caused in the quest for establishing a workable biblico-historical model for the ancient world by having the hugely influential king Hammurabi off-set from his proper place in time to the tune of some 500 years! ABRAM IN EGYPT Inevitably, the conventional scholars, with their MBI location of the Era of Abraham, must arrive at a synchronism with dynastic Egypt that is far too late. Abram, as we shall find, arrived in Archaïc Egypt, before the Old Kingdom era of pyramid building. Conventional dating would place him after the Old Kingdom, in the so-called First Intermediate Period (FIP) - about which period I now have doubts. However, because Egyptian history does not follow the linear pattern of dynasties as conventionally assigned to it, with the consequence that some ‘folding’ is involved, a fluke may occur in this case, with the FIP’s Tenth Dynasty - assigned by some to Abram - being contemporaneous with the Archaïc period in which Abram truly belongs. Abram belonged to, as will be argued here, the time of both the first ruler of Egypt’s First Dynasty, the famous Menes (c. 3100BC), and to his alter ego in the (Ninth or) Tenth Dynasty, Nebkaure Khety (c. 2100 BC). Obviously, these dates are too early for Abram (c. 1870 BC, Dr. Osgood), and will need to be dragged down the timescale. Nelson Glueck’s collaborator for the MBI era of Abram, the celebrated Dr. W.F. Albright, will this time make a much better fist of it, by re-dating Menes and the beginning of dynastic Egyptian history to the time of Naram-Sin (above), who, as Albright concluded, had conquered Menes. Naram-Sin of Akkad, who I think was Nimrod, is still dated too early, though (c. 2254–2218 BC) for Abram, and will need (along with Menes) some chronological lowering. Some conservative Christians again, including Dr. David Down already mentioned, have suggested that the glorious Giza Pyramid-building Age of Egypt’s Fourth Dynasty (c. 2615 to 2495 BC) was the most appropriate time for Abram in Egypt. Matt McClellan has written of this estimation in his article for Answers in Genesis, “Abraham and the Chronology of Ancient Mesopotamia”: https://answersingenesis.org/bible-timeline/abraham-and-the-chronology-of-ancient-mesopotamia/ However, there have been a number of scholars who have come out against the standard chronology in the recent past. …. There has been a concentrated effort to use this new research in ancient chronology to correlate biblical events with Egyptian chronology. Two separate studies have dated Abraham to sometime during the Early Dynastic or the Old Kingdom periods in Egypt. John Ashton and David Down (2006) have dated him to the Fourth Dynasty while this author (McClellan 2011, p. 155) has given a range of dates from the 2nd–6th Dynasties. …. Placing Abraham in this earlier period in Egyptian history also forces Abraham to be dated significantly earlier in Mesopotamian history. (Ur III and Isin-Larsa correspond to the Middle Kingdom in Egypt, and that time aligns better with the Mosaic period than with Abraham’s.) If Abraham is to be dated earlier in Mesopotamian history then in what period did Abraham live in Mesopotamia? What is interesting about the quote by Kitchen above is that he notes that there was another period in Mesopotamian history in which a coalition of kings could have existed; that is, the period before the Akkadian Empire. What is more interesting is that this is the time period that Freedman dated Abraham. So one has to ask whether or not this period could be the setting for Abraham’s life? …. While Matt McClellan is perfectly correct in commenting that “the Middle Kingdom in Egypt … aligns better with the Mosaic period than with Abraham’s”, Ur III, which actually belongs to the time of King Solomon, is irrelevant to both Abraham and Moses. There is some fairly solid tradition that associates Abram with Menes. But what about Nebkaure Khety? How might he connect with Menes? Both Dr. David Rohl and I had, some years ago now, and quite independently, concluded that Abram’s Pharaoh was a Khety (I had Khety III, and he had Khety IV). David Rohl had picked up the important clue that the Classical author, Pliny had called Abram’s Pharaoh Nebkare, close enough to Nebkaure (Khety). Pharaoh and Sarai One of the things that he inclined me to connect Pharaoh Khety with Abram were the words that the ruler of Egypt had uttered in Admonitions to his son, Merikare, that made me think of the Sarai incident that was not entirely the Pharaoh’s fault. Here is what I wrote on this previously: If the so-called Tenth Dynasty were really to be located this early in time … then this would have had major ramifications for any attempted reconstruction of Egyptian history. Having Abram’s Egyptian ruler situated in the Tenth Dynasty did fit well with my view then, at least, that Joseph, who arrived on the scene about two centuries after Abraham, had belonged to the Eleventh Dynasty (as well as to the Third, as Imhotep). Although I would later drop from my revision the notion of Khety (be he II, III or IV) as Abraham’s king of Egypt - not being able to connect him securely to the Old Kingdom era - I am now inclined to return to it. Previously I had written on this: So far, however, I have not been able to establish any compelling link between the 1st and 10th Egyptian dynasties (perhaps Aha “Athothis” in 1 can connect with “Akhthoes” in 10). Nevertheless, that pharaoh Khety appears to have possessed certain striking likenesses to Abram’s [king] has not been lost on David Rohl as well, who, in From Eden to Exile: The Epic History of the People of the Bible (Arrow Books, 2003), identified the “Pharaoh” with Khety (Rohl actually numbers him as Khety IV). And he will further incorporate the view of the Roman author, Pliny, that Abram’s “Pharaoh” had a name that Rohl considers to be akin to Khety’s prenomen: Nebkaure. …. There is a somewhat obscure incident in 10th dynasty history, associated with … Wahkare Khety III and the nome of Thinis, that may possibly relate to the biblical incident [of “Pharaoh” and Abram’s wife]. It should be noted firstly that Khety III is considered to have had to restore order in Egypt after a general era of violence and food shortage, brought on says N. Grimal by “the onset of a Sahelian climate, particularly in eastern Africa” [A History of Ancient Egypt, Blackwell, 1994, p. 139]. Moreover, Khety III’s “real preoccupation was with northern Egypt, which he succeeded in liberating from the occupying populations of Bedouin and Asiatics” [ibid., p. 145]. Could these eastern nomads have been the famine-starved Syro-Palestinians of Abram’s era - including the Hebrews themselves - who had been forced to flee to Egypt for sustenance? And was Khety III referring to the Sarai incident when, in his famous Instruction addressed to his son, Merikare, he recalled, in regard to Thinis (ancient seat of power in Egypt): Lo, a shameful deed occurred in my time: The nome of This was ravaged; Though it happened through my doing, I learned it after it was done. [Emphasis added] Cf. Genesis 12:17-19: But the Lord afflicted Pharaoh and his house with great plagues because of Sarai .... So Pharaoh called Abram, and said, ‘What is this you have done to me? Why did you not tell me that she was your wife? Why did you say, ‘She is my sister’? so that I took her for my wife? Now then, here is your wife, take her, and be gone’. When the Egyptian dynasties are taken not in single file, there occurs a nice symmetry: Abraham (dynasties 1 and 10) Joseph (dynasties 3 and 11) Moses (dynasties 4 and 12) It may now be possible to propose some (albeit tenuous) links between the era of Khety and what is considered to be the far earlier Old Kingdom period to which I would assign Abraham. N. Grimal refers to another Aha (that being the name of Abraham’s proposed contemporary, Hor-Aha) as living at the same time as Khety II. If Menes Hor-Aha (‘Min’) had really reigned for more than sixty years (Manetho-Africanus), then he is likely to have accumulated many other names and titles. …. Menes (‘Min’) Hor-Aha ‘Athothis’ would connect with Nebkaure Khety, or Akhtoes, perhaps through Athothis-Akthoes. Abram’s Pharaoh fits Menes Hor-Aha as being a very long-reigning monarch. I have not only identified the Pharaoh-Sarai incident (Genesis 12:10-20) with the later narrated Abimelech-Sarah incident (20:1-18), using toledôt arguments for the same incident but different authors, but I have further stretched this long-reigning ruler, Pharaoh-Abimelech, to include the somewhat similar Abimelech-Rebekah incident at the time of Isaac (26:1-11). It is notable that the once robust Pharaoh, who had coveted Sarai-Sarah, was now, at an older phase, warning about “one of the men” maybe coveting Rebekah (v. 10). Regarding my identification of Pharaoh with Abimelech, a colleague has pointed out that a chiasmus unites these two entities – a possible clue that this was one and the same person. It can also be shown archaeologically that Egypt had, at this time, encroached into southern Canaan, thereby accounting for why the Pharaoh is also called, as Abimelech, “king of the Philistines in Gerar” (v. 1). Finally, I have most tentatively suggested that Abimelech may have been the same as Mizraim’s (Egypt’s) son, the like-named Lehabim (c f. Genesis 10:13; I Chronicles 1:11). THE FOUR KINGS INVADE CANAAN Since Dr. J. Osgood, and he alone, has completely nailed the archaeology here, there is no need to do any more here than simply to quote the relevant part of his article, “The Times of Abraham”. Dr. Osgood, having archaeologically traced the invasion of the four kings to Late Chalcolithic En-gedi, writes: http://creation.com/the-times-of-abraham The remarkable thing about this [Late Chalcolithic] culture also was that it was very similar, if not the same culture, to that found at a place in the southern Jordan Valley called Taleilat Ghassul (which is the type site of this culture), and also resembles the culture of Beersheba. The culture can in fact be called ‘Ghassul culture’ and specifically Ghassul IV. The Ghassul IV culture disappeared from Trans Jordan, Taleilat Ghassul and Beersheba and the rest of the Negev as well as from Hazezon-tamar or En-gedi apparently at the same time. It is remarkable when looked at on the map that this disappearance of the Ghassul IV culture corresponds exactly to the areas which were attacked by the Mesopotamian confederate of kings. The fact that En-gedi specifically terminates its culture at this point allows a very positive identification of this civilization, Ghassul IV, with the Amorites of Hazezon-tamar. If that be the case, then we can answer Bar Adon’ question very positively. The reason the people did not return to get their goods was that they had been destroyed by the confederate kings of Mesopotamia, in approximately 1,870 B.C. in the days of Abraham. Now as far as Palestine is concerned, in an isolated context, this may be possible to accept, but many might ask: What about the Mesopotamian kings themselves? Others may ask: What does this do to Egyptian chronology? And still further questions need to be asked concerning the origin of the Philistines in the days of Abraham, for the Philistines were closely in touch with Abraham during this same period (Genesis 20). So we must search for evidence of Philistine origins or habitation at approximately the end of the Chalcolithic (Ghassul IV) in Palestine. All these questions will be faced. …. [End of quote] Much earlier than the MBI age, when the Exodus Israelites were wandering in the wilderness, four … kings swept through the Palestine of Abram’s (Abraham’s) day, destroying the Late Chalcolithic phase of En-gedi and the contemporaneous Amorite Ghassul IV culture which now ceased to exist. Dr. Osgood had also provided us with a corresponding archaeology for the Egypt of Abram’s day, the Gerzean culture, or Naqadah II. The following sections from Dr. Osgood’s “The Times of Abraham”, which encompass both the Egyptian and Philistine scenarios relevant to Abraham, are replete with archaeological syncretisms beneficial to my reconstruction here: But Egypt! At this stage there will be many objections to the hypothesis here presented, for it is totally contradictory to the presently held Egyptian chronology of the ancient world. However, I would remind my reader that the Egyptian chronology is not established, despite claims to the contrary. It has many speculative points within it. Let us continue to see if there is any correspondence, for if Abraham was alive in the days of the Ghassul IV culture, then he was alive in the days of the Gerzean culture of pre-Dynastic Egypt, possibly living into the days of the first Dynasty of Egypt. The correspondence between this period in Palestine and in Egypt is very clear, and has been solidly established, particularly by the excavations at Arad by Ruth Amiram10 and at Tel Areini by S. Yeivin.11 Such a revised chronology as here presented would allow Abraham to be in contact with the earliest kings of Dynasty I and the late pre-Dynastic kings, and this would slice a thousand years off the presently held chronology of Egypt. To many the thought would be too radical to contemplate. The author here insists that it must be contemplated. Only so will the chronology of the ancient world be put into proper perspective. Long as the task may take, and however difficult the road may be, it must be undertaken. In order to support the present revised chronology here held, the author sites another correspondence archaeologically, and this concerns both the Philistines and Egypt. The Philistine Question Genesis 20 makes it clear that Abraham was in contact with the Philistines, yet the accepted chronological record presently held does not recognise Philistines being in the land of Philistia at any time corresponding with the days of Abraham. Yet the Bible is adamant. The Scripture is clear that the Philistines were in Canaan by the time of Abraham, approximately 1850 B.C., or at least around the area of Gerar between Kadesh and Shur (Genesis 20:1), and Beersheba (Genesis 21:321) (see Figure 9). A king called Abimelech was present, and his military chief was Phicol (Genesis 21:22). …. We have placed the end of the Chalcolithic of the Negev, En-gedi, Trans Jordan and Taleilat Ghassul at approximately 1870 B.C., being approximately at Abraham’ 80th year. Early Bronze I Palestine (EB I) would follow this, significantly for our discussions. Stratum V therefore at early Arad (Chalcolithic) ends at 1870 B.C., and the next stratum, Stratum IV (EB I), would begin after this. Stratum IV begins therefore some time after 1870 B.C.. This is a new culture significantly different from Stratum V.112 Belonging to Stratum IV, Amiram found a sherd with the name of Narmer (First Dynasty of Egypt),10, 13 and she dates Stratum IV to the early part of the Egyptian Dynasty I and the later part of Canaan EB I. Amiram feels forced to conclude a chronological gap between Stratum V (Chalcolithic) at Arad and Stratum IV EB I at Arad. …. However, this is based on the assumption of time periods on the accepted scale of Canaan’ history, long time periods which are here rejected. The chronological conclusion is strong that Abraham’ life-time corresponds to the Chalcolithic in Egypt, through at least a portion of Dynasty I of Egypt, which equals Ghassul IV through to EB I in Palestine. The possibilities for the Egyptian king of the Abrahamic narrative are therefore:- 1. A late northern Chalcolithic king of Egypt, or 2. Menes or Narmer, be they separate or the same king (Genesis 12:10-20). [End of quote] So far, I have identified Abram’s (Abraham) Akkadian and Egyptian contemporaries: Nimrod (= Sargon of Akkad/Naram-Sin), conqueror of pharaoh Menes Hor-Aha (Nebkaure Khety). Nimrod is also Amraphel king of Shinar (14:1). Narmer may be either Naram-Sin, or Chedorlaomer of Elam. Genesis 14:1-4 introduces the four coalitional kings, and goes on to name the five kings of Pentapolis: At the time when Amraphel was king of Shinar, Arioch king of Ellasar, Chedorlaomer king of Elam and Tidal king of Goyim, these kings went to war against Bera king of Sodom, Birsha king of Gomorrah, Shinab king of Admah, Shemeber king of Zeboyim, and the king of Bela (that is, Zoar). All these latter kings joined forces in the Valley of Siddim (that is, the Dead Sea Valley). For twelve years they had been subject to Chedorlaomer, but in the thirteenth year they rebelled. The mighty Amraphel (Nimrod), first mentioned here, may initially have ruled the other three as subordinate kings, in the sense that a later Assyrian monarch will declare (Isaiah 10:8): “Are not my commanders [governors] all kings?” But legend has Chedorlaomer conquering Amraphel and assuming overall leadership, and this may be reflected in real history. The great Elamite king, Kutik-Inshushinak, allied to Naram-Sin, later won a victory over Akkad. He would be my candidate for the biblical Chedorlaomer. Someone has written on this, on Kutik-[Puzur]-Inshushinak: So, could Kutik-Inshushinak be Chedor-laomer? Last night I checked on the internet for Inshushinak and Lagamar. It seems these are both Elamite dieties [sic] of the underworld. Not hard to see them interchanged. Since Kutik can also be Puzur, then that closing k and the closing r can match -- the opening K can readily match the opening hard Ch -- and if the middle t can be a hard z, then that t is not a strong t, and thus not difficult to connect to a d sound. So Kutik-Inshushinak is not incompatible with Chedor-Lagamar -- Chedorlaomer of Genesis 14. The land of Elam had seemed to me to be well too far away from Canaan for a king from there to keep the Pentapolitan kings in submission for “twelve years”. Royce (Richard) Erickson unwittingly came to the rescue when he wrote a brilliant article (2020), shifting the whole land of Elam far, far to the NW: A PROBLEM IN CHALDAEAN AND ELAMITE GEOGRAPHY https://www.academia.edu/44674697/A_PROBLEM_IN_CHALDAEAN_AND_ELAMITE_GEOGRAPHY None of the four invading kings was Mesopotamian (Dr. Osgood’s “confederate kings of Mesopotamia”, above). Possibly “Tidal king of Goyim”, for instance, was, like Sisera of the later Judges period (Judges 4:2), a military governor for the coalition stationed at Harosheth Haggoyim in what would later become northern Israel.